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When laws take effect. For the purpose of fixing such date the Gazette is conclusively presumed to be published on the day indicated therein as the date of issue. Ignorance of law. Computation of time. No implied revival of repealed law.
Language that should prevail in the interpretation of laws. The converse rule shall, however, be applied if so provided in the particular statute: Provided, however, That in the interpretation of laws enacted by the Philippine Legislature after October sixteenth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, the language of the text used by the House that finally passed the same shall prevail, and in case of ambiguity, omission, or mistake, the official translation filed in the office of the Secretary of said House may be consulted.
Territorial jurisdiction and extent of powers of Philippine Government. Distribution of powers of government. The executive authority is vested in the following agencies: The Governor-General of the Philippine Islands President of the Philippines, as Chief Executive; the several Departments and Bureaus of the Insular National Government, with their lawful instrumentalities; and the provincial and local governments, with their subordinate functionaries, in the exercise of the administrative powers conferred on them.
The legislative power is vested in the Philippine Legislature, consisting of two Houses, to wit, the Senate and the House of Representatives National Assembly. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, Courts of First Instance, courts of justices of the peace, and in such municipal and other inferior courts as may be created by law.
VI, sec. VII, sec. VIII, sec. Arms � Paleways of two pieces, dexter, azure, and sinister, gules; a chief, white, bearing three mullets, or, dexter, center and sinister; an oval field, white, emblazoning at the honor point the symbolic eight-rayed sun in rayonnant, or, each ray-flanked on both sides by lesser and minor rays, or.
Crest � The American eagle proper. The right talon grasping an olive branch with eight leaves, vert, and eight fruits, gules, and the left talon grasping three spears, or. For the purpose of placing the Great Seal, the colors of the arms shall not be deemed essential. Custody and use of Great Seal. Solemn affirmation in lieu of oath. Officials authorized to administer oaths.
Notaries public; judges, justices of the peace, and auxiliary justices of the peace; clerks of courts; the Secretary of the National Assembly; bureau directors; registers of deeds; provincial governors and lieutenant-governors; mayors; any other officer in the Philippine service whose appointment is vested in the President of the Philippines; Secretary of War, or President of the United States.
A person who by authority of law shall act in the capacity of any of the officers mentioned above shall possess the same power. Duty to administer oaths. Oaths of office for insular national and provincial employees. Oath of office of municipal officials. Occasions for administration of official oath. By whom oath of office may be administered. Preservation of oaths. Swearing of interpreters and stenographers.
Legal holidays. The other legal holidays are: The first of January, the twenty-second of February, the first of May, the thirtieth of May, the fourth of July, the thirteenth of August, the thirtieth of November, the thirtieth of December, and the day appointed by law for holding the general election. When any regular holiday of fixed date falls on Sunday, the next succeeding day shall be observed as legal holiday.
Special holiday declared by Governor-General President of the Philippines. Pretermission of holiday. Standard weights and measures in Philippine Islands Philippines. The length of the standard meter shall be determined for the Philippine Islands Philippines by the length at the temperature of zero degrees Centigrade of the fundamental standard measure numbered seventy-one, now preserved in the Bureau of Science and certified to by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Requirement as to use of metric system. In the purchase and sale of manufactured lumber the English system of measures may be employed; and in ordering commodities or articles from abroad such weights and measures may be employed as are commonly used in the country to which the order is sent or from which the goods are shipped. Reporter of Supreme Court as editor of Official Gazette.
Contents of Official Gazette. The publication of any law, resolution, or other official documents in the Official Gazette shall be prima facie evidence of its authenticity. At the end of each quarter an index shall be supplied as a part of the Official Gazette. The Index published at the end of the last quarter shall be complete for the entire year. English and Spanish issues of Official Gazette � Printing and distribution. Each Insular National Bureau and each provincial and municipal government shall subscribe for at least one copy of the Official Gazette and pay for the same out of their respective funds.
Such copies shall be filed and properly kept with the public records of the Bureau, province or municipality for reference. Grand divisions of Philippine Islands Philippines. Any small island of the Philippine Archipelago not hereinafter specifically assigned to a definite province shall belong to the province to which it is in closest proximity. Situs of provinces and major subdivisions � The general location of the provinces other than such as are contained in the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, together with the subprovinces, municipalities and townships municipal districts respectively contained in them is as follows:.
The Province of Abra consists of the territory in northern Luzon formerly comprised in the subprovince of Abra as constituted under Act Numbered Thirteen hundred and six. The Province of Albay, lying north of Sorsogon and south and east of[Ambos Camarines] Camarines Sur, consists of territory on the Island of Luzon with appurtenant small islands , including also the larger islands of San Miguel, Cacraray, Batan, Rapu-Rapu, and the sub-province of Catanduanes, on the island of the same name.
The province contains the following municipalities:. The Province of Antique, lying west of Capiz and Iloilo, consists of territory on the Island of Panay and adjacent islands and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Bataan, lying south of Zambales and southwest of Pampanga, comprises the cape or promontory which separates Manila Bay from the China Sea.
It contains the following municipalities:. The Province of Batanes comprises all islands of the Philippine Archipelago situated north of the Balingtang Channel, and contains the following townships municipalities:. The Province of Batangas, lying south of Cavite and Laguna, and west of Tayabas, consists of territory on the Island of Luzon and adjacent islands, and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Bohol consists of the Island of Bohol and adjacent islands, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Bulacan, lying on the northeastern side of Manila Bay, consists of territory in central Luzon, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Cagayan consists of territory in the extreme northeastern part of Luzon, together with the small islands appurtenant thereto and the islands of the Babuyan Group to the north.
The Province of Camarines Norte, lying north of Camarines Sur and southeast of Tayabas, consists of territory on Luzon and adjacent islands, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Camarines Sur, lying north and west of Albay and south of Camarines Norte, consists of territory on Luzon and adjacent islands, and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Capiz consists of territory on the Island of Panay, and adjacent small islands, and contains the following municipalities:. It comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Ilocos Norte consists of territory in the extreme northwestern part of the Island of Luzon and comprises the following municipalities:. This province also contains the following municipal districts: Adams, Carasi, Dumalneg, and Lagangan. The Province of Iloilo consists of territory on the southeastern part of the Island of Panay and includes the Island of Guimaras and other adjacent islands. The Province of Isabela, lying south of Cagayan, consists of territory in northeastern Luzon and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Laguna, lying on the south of Laguna de Bay, in Luzon, comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Leyte consists of territory on the Island of Leyte and adjacent islands, and contains the following municipalities:.
The Province of Marinduque consists of the Island of Marinduque and the small islands immediately adjacent thereto, and contains the following municipalities:. The Province of Masbate consists of the Islands of Masbate, Ticao, Burias, and all the small adjacent islands, and contains the following municipalities:.
The Province of Mindoro consists of the Island of Mindoro, the Island of Lubang, the Island of Maestre de Campo, and all other islands adjacent to any of them, not included in the territory of some other province. The Province of Oriental Misamis consists of that portion of the former Province of Misamis which comprises the municipalities of Alubijid, Balingasag, Cagayan the capital of the province , Gingoog, Initao, Kinogitan, Salay, Tagoloan, and Talisayan, and the island of Camiguin with its municipalities Catarman, Mambajao and Sagay and adjacent small islands, and the municipal districts of Claveria, Lourdes, and Lumbia.
The Province of Nueva Ecija consists of territory in north-central Luzon, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Nueva Vizcaya, lying southeast of the Mountain Province and southwest of Isabela, consists of the territory in north-central Luzon and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Occidental Negros consists of territory in the northern and western part of the island of Negros, including adjacent small islands. The Province of Oriental Negros consists of territory in the south and eastern part of the Island of Negros, with adjacent small islands, and includes also the subprovince of Siquijor, which consists of the island of the same name.
The Province of Palawan consists of the Island of Palawan, the islands of Dumaran and Balabac, the Calamian Islands, the Cuyo Islands, the Cagayanes Islands, and all other islands adjacent to any of them, not included in some other province, and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Pampanga, lying to the north of Manila Bay, consists of territory in the Island of Luzon, and contains the following municipalities:.
The Province of Pangasinan, lying to the south of Lingayen Gulf, on the Island of Luzon, comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Rizal, lying east of Manila Bay and north of Laguna de Bay, consists of territory in central Luzon and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Romblon consists of the Island of Romblon, the Tablas Island, the Sibuyan Island, the Carabao Island, and the islands of Banton and Simara and the adjacent small islands, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Samar consists of territory on the Island of Samar and adjacent islands, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Sorsogon consists of territory at the southeastern extremity of Luzon, including appurtenant small islands, and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Surigao consists of territory in the northeastern part of the Island of Mindanao, including the islands of Dinagat, Siargao, and Bucas Grande, with appurtenant small islands. The Province of Tarlac consists of territory in north-central Luzon and contains the following municipalities:.
The Province of Tayabas consists of territory in the eastern part of the Island of Luzon, to the north and west of the provinces of Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur. It includes the Island of Polillo, the Island of Jomalig, and other small islands forming a part of the same group. The Province of Zambales consists of territory on the China Sea in the west-central portion of Luzon and comprises the following municipalities:.
Territory included in Department of Mindanao and Sulu. Situs of provinces of Department of Mindanao and Sulu. The Province of Agusan consists of territory in the northern part of the Island of Mindanao, west of Surigao, and comprises the following municipalities:. The Province of Bukidnon consists of territory in the northern part of the Island of Mindanao between the Province of Agusan, to the east, and the Provinces of Oriental Misamis and Lanao to the west, with Cotabato to the south, and comprises the following municipalities:.
The Province of Cotabato lies east and south of the Province of Lanao, south of the Province of Bukidnon and west of the Province of Davao and contains the following municipalities:. The Province of Davao consists of territory in the southeastern corner of the Island of Mindanao, with appurtenant islands, including the Sarangani Islands. Its territory is indented by the waters of the Gulf of Davao.
The Province of Lanao lies east of the Province of Zamboanga and west of Bukidnon, being washed on the southwest by the waters of Illana Bay, and contains the following municipalities:. The Province of Sulu includes all the Islands of Mindanao and Sulu situated in the Celebes Sea and in the Sulu Sea between the fourth and eighth parallels of north latitude lying southwest of a line running northwest and southeast and passing at a point two miles due east of the northeast extremity of Tatalan Island.
It contains the municipality of Jolo the capital of the province. The Province of Zamboanga is located upon the western part of the Island of Mindanao and includes all the territory west of the boundary between Lanao and Zamboanga, with the adjacent islands not included within the Province of Sulu.
Undefined boundaries recognized. Camarines Norte and Tayabas boundary. La Union and Amburayan boundary. La Union and Benguet boundary. The barrio of Ambangonan being Christian, an offset is here made and thus described; from the river crossing of the Calle Real continue up the river about one-half mile, thence in a direct line back to the Calle Real at the foot of the hill about one-half mile from the river on the Calle Real, forming an equilateral triangle.
Thence, continuing on the line of the Calle Real to a point overlooking the Inabaan Valley, at which point a cross is ordered placed, from this point the boundary is to follow a direct line across the valley to a point between the barrios of Cuenca and Casilagan, very near Cuenca, the barrios of Casilagan, Inabaan, and Garampang being in La Union, and Cuenca, San Luis, Enmistampa, Mauasuas, and Dagupan being in Benguet, to a cross on a hill directly west of Dongon, and thence from this point in a direct line to Dongon, Dongon being the boundary point between Benguet, Pangasinan, and La Union.
Part of boundary between La Union and Mountain Province. La Union and Pangasinan boundary. Beginning at a point in the mouth of the Rabon River S. Boundaries of subprovince of Apayao. Benguet and Amburayan-Lepanto boundaries. Boundaries of subprovince of Kalinga. Nueva Vizcaya and Ifugao boundary. The remainder of said boundary coincides with the southern limits of the former Comandancia of Kiangan. Zamboanga and Lanao boundary. Boundary between Misamis and provinces of Department of Mindanao and Sulu.
Bearings from true meridian. Eastern boundary of Province of Lanao. Departing at this point from the western boundary of Bukidnon the said Lanao boundary runs thence south along the crest of the watershed dividing the waters flowing into Lake Lanao from those which flow into Macajalar Bay and into the Mindanao River, thence south and west along the crest of said last mentioned watershed to the summit of Mount Bita, the highest peak south of Butig, thence south and west to Tugapangan Point.
Agusan and Bukidnon boundary. Said line shall be so run as to bring the municipalities and settlements of the Agusan River Valley into the Province of Agusan. Agusan and Surigao boundary. Cotabato and Davao boundary. Act approved November 30, re change of boundary line between the Provinces of Occidental Misamis and Zamboanga. Act approved Decmber 3, modifying boundary line between the Provinces of Surigao and Davao.
Governor-General President of the Philippines. VII, section 2. The Governor-General President of the Philippines, as Chief Executive of the Islands Philippines, is charged with the executive control of the Philippine Government, to be exercised in person or through the Secretaries of Departments, or other proper agency, according to law; and he shall be responsible for the faithful execution of all laws operative within the Philippine Islands Philippines. The Governor-General President of the Philippines is vested with the exclusive power to grant pardons and reprieves and remit fines and forfeitures.
When it becomes necessary he may call upon the commanders of the military and naval forces of the United States in the Islands Philippines, or summon the posse comitatus, or call out the militia or other locally created armed forces, to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion, insurrection, or rebellion; and he may, in case of rebellion or invasion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public safety requires it, suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus, or place the Islands Philippines, or any part thereof, under martial law, subject to the provisions of section twenty-one of the Act of Congress of the twenty-ninth of August, nineteen hundred and sixteen.
Vice-Governor Vice-President. VII, secs. When neither the President-elect nor the Vice-President-elect shall have qualified, as provided in section seven, Article VII of the Constitution, or in the event of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, as stated in section nine, Article VII of the Constitution, the National Assembly shall forthwith convene and elect, by a majority vote of all its Members, the person or officer who shall act as President until the President-elect or the Vice-President-elect shall have qualified, the inability removed, or a President shall have been elected.
When the vacancy in the office of President and Vice-President shall become permanent, the National Assembly shall determine by resolution whether or not special election shall be held to elect a President. The call for the National Assembly to convene as herein provided may be made by the Speaker, or the Secretary, or twenty-five Members thereof. In any of the events mentioned in section one hereof, pending the election of an acting President by the National Assembly, a Department Secretary, in the order of rank established in the Administrative Code, will perform the duties of temporary President.
See also Ex. Aide-de-camp to Governor-General President of the Philippines. Executive orders and executive proclamations. Executive orders fixing the dates when specific laws, resolutions, or orders are to have or cease effect and any information concerning matters of public moment determined by law, resolution, or executive orders, may be promulgated in an executive proclamation, with all the force of an executive order.
Particular powers and duties of Governor-General President of the Philippines. For disloyalty to the United States, the Governor-General President of the Philippines may at any time remove a person from any position of trust or authority under the Government of the Philippine Islands Philippines. Such reward, together with the proper expense of advertising the same, shall be payable pursuant the appropriation from the Insular National Treasury; but the provincial board of any province in which a reward is so offered may order payment to be made from the provincial funds, subject to reimbursement from the Insular National Treasury.
Power to appoint officials. The Governor-General shall commission all officers appointed by him. Particular officers appointable by Governor-General President of the Philippines.
The several Secretaries of Departments, with the exception of the Secretary of Public Instruction; the Under Secretaries of the several Secretaries of Department; judges and auxiliary judges of first instance, the assistant attorneys of the Bureau of Justice, the Chief and Assistant Chief of the General Land Registration Office, provincial treasurers, provincial fiscals, registers of deeds, justices of the peace, auxiliary justices of the peace, the assistant auditors in the Bureau of Audits, officers of the Philippine Health Service, the chief of the biological laboratory in the Bureau of Science, and the Secretary now Assistant Director of the Weather Bureau.
Submission of data for appropriation bill. General authority of Governor-General President of the Philippines to fix boundaries and make new subdivisions. When any action by the Governor-General President of the Philippines in accordance herewith makes necessary a change of the territory under the jurisdiction of any administrative officer or any judicial officer, the Governor-General President of the Philippines, with the recommendation and advice of the head of the Department having executive control of such officer, shall redistrict the territory of the several officers affected and assign such officers to the new districts so formed.
Upon the changing of the limits of political divisions in pursuance of the foregoing authority, an equitable distribution of the funds and obligations of the divisions thereby affected shall be made in such manner as may be recommended by the Insular Auditor Auditor General and approved by the Governor-General President of the Philippines.
Deportation of subject of foreign power. In such case the person concerned shall be informed of the charge or charges against him and he shall be allowed not less than three days for the preparation of his defense. He shall also have the right to be heard by himself or counsel, to produce witnesses in his own behalf, and to cross-examine the opposing witnesses. Examination of books and accounts of Auditor and Treasurer.
Power of investigating officer to take testimony. Concentration of inhabitants from outlying barrios. Departmental organization. The Departments are established for the proper distribution of the work of the Executive, for the performance of the functions expressly assigned to them by law, and in order that each branch of the administration may have a chief responsible for its direction and policy.
Each Department Secretary shall assume the burden and responsibility of all activities of the Government under his control and supervision. For administrative purposes the Governor-General President of the Philippines shall be considered the Department Head of the Bureau of Audits General Auditing Office, the Bureau of Civil Service, and of all other offices and branches of the service not assigned by law to any Department. Executive Departments. Secretaries of Departments.
Appointment of Secretaries. However, the President may appoint the Vice-President as a member of his cabinet and also as head of an executive department. VII, of said Constitution. Qualifications of Secretaries.
When a Department Secretary is unable to perform his duties owing to illness, absence, or other cause, or in case of a vacancy in the office, the respective Undersecretary, or the Undersecretary designated, as the case may be, shall temporarily perform the functions of said office. In case neither the Secretary nor the Undersecretaries of a Department are able to perform their duties, owing to illness, absence, or any other cause, the Governor-General President of the Philippines may temporarily designate a Secretary or Undersecretary of another Department to perform such duties temporarily during the absence of the former.
Initiative of the Department Head. Power to regulate. All rules, regulations, orders, or instructions of a general and permanent character promulgated in conformity with this section shall be numbered by each Department consecutively each year, and shall be duly published. Chiefs of Bureaus or offices may, however, be authorized to promulgate circulars of information or instructions for the government of the officers and employees in the interior administration of the business of each Bureau or office, and in such case said circulars shall not be required to be published.
Power of direction and supervision. The Department Head may order the investigation of any act or conduct of any person in the service of any bureau or office under his department and in connection therewith may appoint a committee or designate an official or person who shall conduct such investigations, and such committee, official, or person may summon witnesses by subpoena and subpoena duces tecum, administer oath and take testimony relevant to the investigation.
Power to appoint and remove. Laborers receiving compensation at Large Old Yachts For Sale 77 the rate of seven hundred and twenty pesos or less per annum, and other employees receiving compensation at the rate of two hundred pesos or less per annum, shall be appointed and removed by the chief of the Bureau or office, subject only to the general control of the Department Head.
The Department Head also may, from time to time, in the interest of the service, change the distribution among the several Bureaus and offices of his Department of the employees or subordinates authorized by law.
Leave of Secretaries and Undersecretaries. Conveyances and contracts to which the Government is a party. Such deed, instrument, or contract shall be executed and signed by the Governor-General President of the Philippines on behalf of the Government of the Philippine Islands Philippines unless the authority therefor be expressly vested by law in another officer. Appearance in either House National Assembly. Bureaus and offices under the Department of Finance.
It shall also have the general supervision over banks, banking transactions, coinage, currency, and except as otherwise specially provided, over all funds the investment of which may be authorized by law. Bureaus and offices under the Department of Public Instruction. Bureaus and offices under the Department of Justice. It shall also have the general supervision and control of the provincial sheriffs, the provincial fiscals, and all other law officers of the Government.
The Secretary of Justice shall be the attorney-general and legal adviser of the Government and ex officio legal adviser of all government-owned and controlled business enterprises.
As such, he may assign to the law officers of the said business enterprises such other duties as he may see fit, in addition to their regular duties. When thereunto requested in writing, the Secretary of Justice shall give advice, in the form of written opinions, to any of the following functionaries, upon any question of law relative to the powers and duties of themselves or subordinates, or relative to the interpretation of any law or laws affecting their offices or functions, to wit: the Governor-General President of the Philippines, the President of the Philippine Senate , the Speaker of the House of Representatives National Assembly, the respective Heads of the Executive Departments, the chiefs of the organized bureaus and offices, the trustee of any government institution, and any provincial fiscal.
Bureaus and offices under the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Bureaus and offices under the Department of Public Works and Communications. Bureaus and offices under the Department of the Interior. It shall also have the general supervision over matters pertaining to marriage and the registration of priests and ministers.
Bureaus and offices under the Department of Labor. It shall also have executive supervision over matters concerning the administration of existing Philippine Immigration Laws. Section thirty-four a of Act Numbered Four thousand and seven is hereby amended to read as follows:. Assignment of offices. Department Head for legislative employees. Department Head for Supreme Court.
Submission of estimates for Appropriation Bill. Reports of Secretaries of Departments. Such reports shall be printed in English and Spanish and shall be distributed in such manner as the Governor-General President of the Philippines shall prescribe.
Privilege of members from arrest. Convening of[Legislature] National Assembly and duration of sessions. The Legislature may be called in special session at any time by the Governor-General for general legislation, or for action on such specific subjects as he may designate.
No special session shall continue longer than thirty days. Election returns � Rules. Organization and quorum. A majority of each house shall constitute a quorum to do business, but a smaller number may meet, adjourn from day to day, and compel the attendance of absent members.
Mode of designating different sessions. Adjournment of one House limited to three days. Assistance of Government officers and other experts. Either House The National Assembly, or the President Speaker thereof, may designate temporarily or otherwise, and at such expense as may be agreed upon, any person or persons not in the Government service, whose expert knowledge may be considered necessary or useful.
Expenses incurred under the provisions of this section shall be paid out of any funds available for the payment of the expenses of the House concerned National Assembly.
Power of chairmen chairman of Appropriation Committees Committee to require information from Government officers. Special election for member of Legislature National Assembly. Ineligibility of member of[Legislature] National Assembly to other Office. If he approves the same, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, which shall enter the objections at large on its journal and proceed to reconsider it.
If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of the members elected to that house shall agree to pass the same, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of all the members elected to that house it shall be sent to the Governor-General, who may either then approve the same or transmit it to the President of the United States for action thereon conformably to the provisions of section nineteen of the Act of Congress of August the twenty-ninth, nineteen hundred and sixteen.
The vote of each house upon bills and resolutions vetoed by the Governor-General shall be by the yeas and nays, and the names of the members voting for and against shall be entered on the journal. If any bill or joint resolution shall not be returned by the Governor-General as herein provided within twenty days Sundays excepted after it shall have been presented to him the same shall become a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Legislature by adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall become a law unless vetoed by the Governor-General within thirty days after adjournment.
Veto of item in appropriation bill. The item or items objected to shall not take effect except in the manner provided as to bills and joint resolutions returned to the Legislature without his approval. Election of Resident Commissioner s to United States.
Such commissioners hold office for three years beginning on the fourth of March next after election. Duties of secretary of Resident Commissioner. Method of choosing Resident Commissioners. When both Houses thus name the same person such individual shall be one of the two nominees to be voted for as Commissioner, and the second person to be so voted for shall be nominated in the same manner. In case of disagreement between the two Houses as regards any nominee a new nomination shall be made until both Houses agree upon the same individual.
When the two persons to be voted for have been thus nominated there shall be a concurrent election of such two individuals by both Houses acting at the same time but by separate votes. If both persons previously nominated should not be elected the election shall be void, and a new election shall be made of two persons nominated by both Houses.
The Senators from those districts which are numbered consecutively from one to eleven, inclusive, shall be elected by the qualified voters of their respective districts, in such sequence that one Senator shall be elected from each district at each triennial general election, to hold office for a term of six years from the date of his election.
As senators for the Twelfth senatorial district the Governor-General shall appoint, without the consent of the Senate and without restriction as to residence, two members who will in his opinion best represent said district, and who shall hold office until removed by the Governor-General.
A Senator elected at a special election shall hold office only for the unexpired portion of the term wherein the vacancy occurred. Upon the occurrence of a vacancy in the office of the Secretary during a recess of the Legislature, the President of the Senate may fill the place by appointment until a successor shall have been duly elected. House of Representatives as branch of Legislature. Membership of House National Assembly. Limitation upon number of members.
Representative districts. A province which is entitled to more than one representative Member shall be divided into as many districts as there are representatives Members to be chosen for it. So far as practicable each district shall be composed of contiguous and compact territory; and all shall contain, as near as may be, an equal number of inhabitants. Election[and appointment] of members of House National Assembly. Qualifications for member of House National Assembly.
Duties of Secretary of House National Assembly. Upon the occurrence of a vacancy in the office of Secretary during a recess of the Legislature National Assembly, the Speaker may fill the place by appointment until a successor shall have been duly elected.
Sessions of House National Assembly committee, acting during legislative recesses. Representative districts in certain provinces. Representative districts in Mountain Province and[Department of Mindanao and Sulu � The territory to be comprised in the respective representative districts of the Mountain Province and Department of Mindanao and Sulu shall be determined by the Governor-General.
The various courts. Special provision in oath of judges. Preservation of oath of office of judge. Where a judge is authorized by law to exercise his functions in more than one court, it shall suffice if his oath is recorded in the court where he has his official station. In case any special proceeding, application, petition, demurrer, motion, civil or criminal case is resubmitted upon the voluntary application or consent in writing of all the parties to the case, cause, or proceeding, and not otherwise, the ninety days herein prescribed within which a decision should be made shall begin to run from the date of such resubmission.
Disposition of moneys paid into court. A clerk shall not receive money belonging to private parties except where the same is paid to him or into court by authority of law. Disbursement of funds for judiciary establishment. Annual report of clerks of courts. The presence of five Justices shall be necessary to constitute a quorum except when the judgment of the lower court imposes the death penalty, in which case the presence of all the Justices shall be necessary to constitute a quorum.
In the absence of a quorum, the Court shall stand ipso facto adjourned until such time as the requisite number shall be present, and a memorandum showing this fact shall be inserted by the clerk in the minutes of the Court. If on account of illness, absence, or incapacity upon any of the grounds mentioned in section eight of Act Numbered One hundred and ninety, of any of the Justices of the Court, or, whenever, by reason of temporary disability of any Justice thereof or of vacancies, occurring therein the requisite number of Justices necessary to constitute a quorum or to render a judgment in any given case, as heretofore provided, is not present, the President of the Philippines, upon the recommendation of the Chief Justice, may designate such number of Judges of the Court of Appeals, as may be necessary, to sit temporarily as Justices of said Court, in order to form a quorum, or until a judgment in said case is reached: Provided, however, That no Judge of the Court of Appeals may be designated to act in any case in the decision of which he has taken part.
The concurrence of at least four Justices of the Court shall be necessary for the pronouncement of a judgment. However, for the purpose of declaring a law or a treaty unconstitutional, at least five Justices must concur. When the necessary majority, as herein provided, to declare a law or a treaty unconstitutional cannot be had, the Court shall so declare, and in such case the validity or constitutionality of the act or treaty involved shall be deemed upheld. Whenever the judgment of the lower court imposes the death penalty, the case shall be heard and determined by all the Justices of the Court, and the unanimous decision of all of such Justices shall be necessary for the pronouncement of a judgment in imposing the death penalty.
When the Court fails to reach a unanimous decision as herein provided, the penalty next lower in degree than the death penalty shall be imposed. Place of holding sessions. Whenever the public interest so requires, it may hold its sessions in any other place within the Philippines. Appointment of Justice of the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court shall be so designated in his commission; and the Associate Justices shall have precedence according to the dates of their respective commissions, or, when the commissions of two or more of them bear the same date; according to the order in which their commissions may have been issued by the President of the Philippines.
Vacancy in office of Chief Justice. This provision shall apply to every Associate Justice who succeeds to the office of Chief Justice. Authority of Supreme Court over administration of its own affairs. Status of subordinates. Vacation period. By resolution entered upon the minutes of the court, the Supreme Court vacation may be made to begin on the first of April and close with the first of July in any year.
During vacation at least one of the justices, to be designated in such manner as the court by resolution shall direct, shall remain on duty. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction to review, revise, reverse, modify or affirm, on appeal, certiorari or writ of error, as the law or rules of court may provide, final judgments and decrees of inferior courts as herein provided, in �.
The Supreme Court shall likewise have exclusive jurisdiction over all appeals in civil cases, even though the value in controversy, exclusive of interests and costs, is fifty thousand pesos or less, when the evidence involved in said cases is the same as the evidence submitted in an appealed civil case within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court as provided herein.
Regular terms of Supreme Court. Each regular term shall continue to and include the day before the opening of the next regular term. The Supreme Court shall convene and hold a session after the regular court vacation on the first day of July, or, if that be a holiday, then upon the next day thereafter not a holiday, for the purpose of hearing such motions and applications as should be heard before the close of the term.
The court shall also meet upon the second day of January, or, if that be a holiday, upon the next day thereafter which is not a holiday, for the purpose of hearing such business of the regular July term as should be heard before the end of the term. The office of the Clerk of the Supreme Court shall always be open for the transaction of business, except upon lawful holidays, and the court shall always be open for the transaction of such interlocutory business as may be done by a single member thereof.
The sessions of the court for the hearing of cases shall be held on such days in the week, and for such length of time, as the court by its rules may order. Preservation of order in Supreme Court. To this end he shall carry into effect the rules or orders of the court made in this behalf, or of any judge thereof, and shall arrest any person there disturbing the court or violating the peace. Service of process of Supreme Court. Form of decisions � When opinion to be reported.
When the court shall deem a decision to be of sufficient importance to require publication, the Clerk shall furnish a certified copy to the Reporter.
Dissenting opinions shall be published when the judges writing such opinions shall so direct. Preparation of opinions for publication.
General make-up of volumes. The Court of Appeals. The Presiding Justice of the Court of Appeals shall be so designated in his commission, and the other Justices of the Court shall have precedence according to the dates of their respective commissions, or when the commissions of two or more of them shall bear the same date according to the order in which their commissions have been issued by the President of the Philippines. The said Court of Appeals shall, as a body, sit in banc, but it may sit in three divisions of five Justices each.
The three divisions may sit at the same time. Presiding Justice to preside sessions of Court. In his absence, that one of the Associate Justices attending shall preside who is first in precedence in accordance with the above preceding section of this Code. Vacancy in office of Presiding Justice. This provision and the provision of the preceding section shall apply to every Associate Justice who succeeds to the office of the Presiding Justice. However, no Judge of First Instance so appointed shall act in the Court of Appeals in any case in which his ruling or decision is the subject of review.
Qualifications and compensation of Justices of Court of Appeals. The Presiding Justice of the Court of Appeals shall receive an annual compensation of thirteen thousand pesos, and each Associate Justice, an annual compensation of twelve thousand pesos. Jurisdiction of the Court of Appeals. The decision of the Court of Appeals in such cases shall be final: Provided, however, That the Supreme Court in its discretion may, in any case involving a question of law, upon petition of the party aggrieved by the decision and under rules and conditions that it may prescribe, require by certiorari that the said case be certified to it for review and determination, as if the case had been brought before it on appeal.
Original jurisdiction of the Court of Appeals. Transfer of cases from Supreme Court and Court of Appeals to proper court.
Whenever the President of the Philippines shall find that the public interest requires that the court hold session in any other place within the Philippines, the court shall, by resolution, make provision for the holding of such session in banc or by any of its divisions.
Quorum of the Court. In the absence of a quorum, the Court or the division shall stand ipso facto adjourned until such time as the requisite number shall be present, and a memorandum showing this fact shall be inserted by the clerk in the minutes of the Court.
Distribution of cases between divisions. Whenever in any criminal case submitted to a division, the said division or any member thereof, should be of the opinion that the penalty of death or life imprisonment should be imposed, the said Court shall refrain from entering judgment thereon and shall forthwith certify case to the Supreme Court for final determination, as the case had been brought before it on appeal.
Whenever a division of the Court of Appeals fails to reach a decision in a case submitted to it, or whenever such division shall so order, or whenever the Presiding Justice, in the exercise of his sound discretion, so orders, the case shall be heard and determined by the Court sitting in banc, the affirmative vote of at least eight Justices being necessary for the pronouncement of a judgment.
Power of the Court to adopt rules. Clerk of the Court of Appeals; his appointment; his compensation; his bond. No person may be appointed clerk of the Court of Appeals unless he has been engaged for five years or more in the practice of law, or has been clerk or deputy clerk of a court of record for the same period of time.
The clerk shall receive an annual compensation of five thousand forty pesos. Before entering upon the discharge of the duties of his office, he shall file a bond in the amount of five thousand pesos in the same manner and form as required of the clerk of the Supreme Court, such bond to be approved by the Treasurer of the Philippines. The bond shall be kept in the office of the Treasurer of the Philippines and entered in his books, the same being subject to inspection by interested parties.
The clerk of court may require any of his deputies or assistants to give an adequate bond as security against loss by reason of any wrongdoing or gross negligence on the part of such deputy or assistant.
Appointment by Court of Appeals of deputy clerks of Court and other officers. Certification of cases pending in Supreme Court to Court of Appeals, if such cases properly belong to the latter Court.
In those cases so pending in the Supreme Court, in which reference has been made to referees or commissioners for the taking of evidence, no such certification shall be made until after such evidence has been received in the Supreme Court. Applicability of laws and rules covering appeals. Courts of First Instance. Judges of First Instance.
Limitation upon tenure of office. Clerks and other subordinate employees of Courts of First Instance. The Clerk of a Court of First Instance may, by special written deputization approved by the judge, authorize any suitable person to act as his special deputy and in such capacity to perform such functions as may be specified in the authority granted.
Permanent station of clerk of court. Provincial officer as ex-officio clerk of court. Judicial districts. Judges of First Instance for Judicial Districts. Four judges shall be commissioned for the Second Judicial District.
Two judges shall preside over the Court of First Instance of, and reside in, the Province of Pangasinan; one judge, with permanent residence in Baguio, shall preside over the Courts of First Instance of the Province of La Union, the City of Baguio, and the Mountain Province, except Apayao; and another judge, with permanent residence in the Province of Bataan, shall preside over the Courts of First Instance of Bataan and Zambales.
Seven judges shall be commissioned for the Third Judicial District. Two judges shall preside over the Court of First Instance of, and reside in, the Province of Nueva Ecija; two judges shall preside over the Court of First Instance of, and reside in, the Province of Pampanga; one judge shall preside over the Courts of First Instance of, and reside in, the Province of Tarlac; and two judges shall preside over the Court of First Instance of, and reside in, the Province of Bulacan.
Eleven judges shall be commissioned for the Fourth Judicial District. By that year, the Spanish government had deployed more than , troops to Cuba, as the end of the Third Carlist War had freed up Spanish soldiers for the suppression of the revolt. However, dissatisfaction with the peace treaty led to the Little War of � During the time of the so-called "Rewarding Truce", which encompassed the 17 years from the end of the Ten Years' War in , fundamental changes took place in Cuban society.
With the abolition of slavery in October , former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and urban working class. Most wealthy Cubans lost their rural properties, and many of them joined the urban middle class.
The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased, with only companies and the most powerful plantation owners owning them. The numbers of campesinos and tenant farmers rose considerably. Furthermore, American capital began flowing into Cuba, mostly into the sugar and tobacco businesses and mining. Although Cuba remained Spanish politically, economically it became increasingly dependent on the United States.
These changes also entailed the rise of labour movements. The first Cuban labour organization, the Cigar Makers Guild, was created in , followed by the Central Board of Artisans in , and many more across the island. Blaine placed particular importance on the control of Cuba.
Propaganda efforts continued for years and intensified starting in After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States, the Antilles and Latin America, the Partido Revolucionario Cubano Cuban Revolutionary Party was officially proclaimed on 10 April , with the purpose of gaining independence for both Cuba and Puerto Rico.
By the end of , the basic conditions for launching the revolution were set. On 25 December , three ships, the Lagonda , the Almadis and the Baracoa , set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with armed men and supplies.
Two of the ships were seized by U. The insurrection began on 24 February , with uprisings all across the island. In the province of Havana the insurrection was discovered before it got off and the leaders detained. Around that time, Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,, of which 20, were regular troops, and 60, were Spanish and Cuban volunteers. The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the guard and police duties on the island.
Wealthy landowners would volunteer a number of their slaves to serve in this force, which was under local control and not under official military command. By December, 98, regular troops had been sent to the island and the number of volunteers had increased to 63, men. By the end of , there were , regulars and 60, irregulars on the island. The revolutionaries were far outnumbered.
The rebels came to be nicknamed "Mambis" after a black Spanish officer, Juan Ethninius Mamby, who joined the Dominicans in the fight for independence in The Cubans adopted the name with pride. After the Ten Years' War, possession of weapons by private individuals was prohibited in Cuba.
Thus, one of the most serious and persistent problems for the rebels was a shortage of suitable weapons. This lack of arms forced them to utilise guerrilla tactics, using the environment, the element of surprise, fast horses and simple weapons such as machetes. Most of their firearms were acquired in raids on the Spaniards. Between 11 June and 30 November , 60 attempts were made to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside Cuba, but only one succeeded, largely due to British naval protection.
Navy, four by the Spanish Navy, two were wrecked, one was driven back to port by a storm, and the fate of another is unknown. Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Years' War, constructing a broad defensive belt across the island, about 80 kilometres 50 mi long and metres ft wide. This line, called the trocha , was intended to limit rebel activities to the eastern provinces, and consisted of a railroad , from Jucaro in the south to Moron in the north, on which armored railcars could travel.
At various points along this railroad there were fortifications, at intervals of 12 metres 39 ft there were posts and at intervals of metres 1, ft there was barbed wire. In addition, booby traps were placed at the locations most likely to be attacked. The Ten Years' War failed because it had not managed to proceed beyond the eastern provinces. Unable to defeat the rebels with conventional military tactics, [76] the Spanish government sent Gen.
Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau nicknamed The Butcher , who reacted to these rebel successes by introducing terror methods: periodic executions, mass exiles, and the destruction of farms and crops. These methods reached their height on 21 October , when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops within eight days.
Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes, creating appalling conditions of overcrowding in the towns and cities. This was the first recorded and recognized use of concentration camps where non-combatants were removed from their land to deprive the enemy of succor and then the internees were subjected to appalling conditions. The Spanish also employed the use of concentration camps in the Philippines shortly after, again resulting in massive non-combatant fatalities.
Since the early s, Spain had also been suppressing an independence movement in the Philippines , which was intensifying; Spain was thus now fighting two wars, which placed a heavy burden on its economy. In secret negotiations in , Spain turned down the United States' offers to buy Cuba. Maceo was killed on 7 December , in Havana province, while returning from the west. Although weapons and funding came from within the United States, the supply operation violated American laws, which were enforced by the U.
Coast Guard ; of 71 resupply missions, only 27 got through, with 5 being stopped by the Spanish and 33 by the U. Coast Guard. Spanish liberal leader Praxedes Sagasta admitted in May "After having sent , men and shed so much blood, we don't own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on". Las Tunas had been guarded by over 1, well-armed and well-supplied men.
The newly adopted constitution decreed that a military command be subordinated to civilian rule. Thereafter, Madrid decided to change its policy toward Cuba, replacing Weyler, drawing up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico , and installing a new government in Havana.
But with half the country out of its control, and the other half in arms, the new government was powerless and rejected by the rebels. The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the North American imagination for years and newspapers had been agitating for intervention with sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population.
This continued even after Spain replaced Weyler and said it changed its policies, and the North American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening in favor of the Cubans. In January , a riot by Cuban-Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana, leading to the destruction of the printing presses of four local newspapers which published articles critical of the Spanish Army.
The U. Consul-General cabled Washington, fearing for the lives of Americans living in Havana. On 15 February , the Maine was destroyed by an explosion, killing crewmembers. The cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day, but the incident focused American attention on Cuba, and President William McKinley and his supporters could not stop Congress from declaring war to "liberate" Cuba.
In an attempt to appease the United States, the colonial government took two steps that had been demanded by President McKinley: it ended the forced relocation policy and offered negotiations with the independence fighters.
However, the truce was rejected by the rebels and the concessions proved too late and too ineffective. Madrid asked other European powers for help; they refused and said Spain should back down. On 19 April, Congress passed joint resolutions by a vote of to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing the president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain.
This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included from Senator Henry Teller the Teller Amendment , which passed unanimously, stipulating that "the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent". Senate and Congress passed the amendment on 19 April, McKinley signed the joint resolution on 20 April and the ultimatum was forwarded to Spain.
Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a U. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente where the Cubans had almost absolute control and were able to co-operate, for example, by establishing a beachhead and protecting the U. The first U. The port of Santiago became the main target of U.
American losses at Las Guasimas were 16 killed and 52 wounded; the Spanish lost 12 dead and 24 wounded. The Americans and Cubans began a siege of the city , [88] which surrendered on 16 July after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Thus, Oriente fell under the control of Americans and the Cubans, but U. General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago, claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards. After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico, which had also been invaded by the United States, and with no hope of holding on to Cuba, Spain sued for peace on 17 July General William R.
After the last Spanish troops left the island in December , the government of Cuba was temporarily handed over to the United States on 1 January The first governor was General John R. Once it had been pried away from the Spaniards it was to be assured that it moved and remained in the U.
How this was to be achieved was a matter of intense discussion and annexation was an option, not only on the mainland but also in Cuba. McKinley spoke about the links that should exist between the two nations. Brooke set up a civilian government, placed U. Many Spanish colonial government officials were kept in their posts. The population were ordered to disarm and, ignoring the Mambi Army, Brooke created the Rural Guard and municipal police corps at the service of the occupation forces.
Cuba's judicial powers and courts remained legally based on the codes of the Spanish government. The revolutionary Assembly of Representatives was also dissolved. Thus, the three representative institutions of the national liberation movement disappeared. Before the United States officially took over the government, it had already begun cutting tariffs on American goods entering Cuba, without granting the same rights to Cuban goods going to the United States.
Immediately after the war, there were several serious barriers for foreign businesses attempting to operate in Cuba. Three separate pieces of legislation�the Joint Resolution of , the Teller Amendment, and the Foraker Amendment�threatened foreign investment. The Joint Resolution of stated that the Cuban people are by right free and independent, while the Teller Amendment further declared that the United States could not annex Cuba. These two pieces of legislation were crucial in appeasing anti-imperialists as the United States intervened in the war in Cuba.
Similarly, the Foraker Amendment, which prohibited the U. Although these three statutes enabled the United States to gain a foothold in Cuba, they presented obstacles for American businesses to acquire land and permits.
Eventually, Cornelius Van Horne of the Cuba Company, an early railroad company in Cuba, found a loophole in "revocable permits" justified by preexisting Spanish legislation that effectively allowed railroads to be built in Cuba.
General Leonard Wood, the governor of Cuba and a noted annexationist, used this loophole to grant hundreds of franchises, permits, and other concessions to American businesses. Once the legal barriers were overcome, American investments transformed the Cuban economy. Within two years of entering Cuba, the Cuba Company built a mile railroad connecting the eastern port of Santiago to the existing railways in central Cuba.
The company was the largest single foreign investment in Cuba for the first two decades of the twentieth century. By the s it was the largest company in the country.
As many small Cuban sugar cane producers were crippled with debt and damages from the war, American companies were able to quickly and cheaply take over the sugar cane industry.
At the same time, new productive units called centrales could grind up to 2, tons of cane a day making large-scale operations most profitable.
Furthermore, the centrales required a large, steady flow of cane to remain profitable, which led to further consolidation in the industry. Cuban cane farmers who had formerly been landowners became tenants on company land, funneling raw cane to the centrales. With American corporate interests firmly rooted in Cuba, the U. The Reciprocity Treaty of lowered the U. This gave Cuban sugar a competitive edge in the American marketplace.
At the same time, it granted equal or greater concessions on most items imported from the United States. Popular demands for a Constituent Assembly soon emerged. War Secretary assured the Cuban populace that the occupation was temporary, that municipal and general elections would be held, that a Constituent Assembly would be set up, and that sovereignty would be handed to Cubans.
Brooke was replaced by General Leonard Wood to oversee the transition. Only members of the dissolved Liberation Army were exempt from these conditions. Thus, the number of about , male citizens over 21 was reduced to about , The same elections were held one year later, again for a one-year-term. Elections for 31 delegates to a Constituent Assembly were held on 15 September with the same balloting restrictions.
In all three elections, pro-independence candidates, including a large number of mambi delegates, won overwhelming majorities. It established a republican form of government, proclaimed internationally recognized individual rights and liberties, freedom of religion, separation between church and state , and described the composition, structure and functions of state powers.
On 2 March , the U. Congress passed the Army Appropriations Act , stipulating the conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba following the Spanish�American War. As a rider , this act included the Platt Amendment , which defined the terms of Cuban-U. It replaced the earlier Teller Amendment. The amendment provided for a number of rules heavily infringing on Cuba's sovereignty:.
As a precondition to Cuba's independence, the United States demanded that this amendment be approved fully and without changes by the Constituent Assembly as an appendix to the new constitution.
Faced with this alternative, the appendix was approved, after heated debate, by a margin of four votes. Governor Wood admitted: "Little or no independence had been left to Cuba with the Platt Amendment and the only thing appropriate was to seek annexation". Palma was elected to be the Republic's first President, although he only returned to Cuba four months after the election.
In , the United States handed over control to a Cuban government. As a condition of the transfer, the Cuban state had included in its constitution provisions implementing the requirements of the Platt Amendment , which among other things gave the United States the right to intervene militarily in Cuba. Havana and Varadero soon became popular tourist resorts. Though some efforts were made to ease Cuba's ethnic tensions through government policies, racism and informal discrimination towards blacks and mestizos remained widespread during this era.
The status of the Isle of Pines as Cuban territory was left undefined until , when the United States finally recognized Cuban sovereignty over the island. Estrada Palma, a frugal man, governed successfully for his four-year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued.
After the collapse of President Palma's regime, US President Roosevelt ordered an invasion and established an occupation that would continue for nearly two-and-a-half years.
The stated goal of the operation was to prevent fighting between the Cubans, to protect North American economic interests, and to hold free elections. In , the United States representative William Howard Taft , notably with the personal diplomacy of Frederick Funston , negotiated an end of the successful revolt led by the young general Enrique Loynaz del Castillo , [] who had served under Antonio Maceo in the final war of independence.
For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders , who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms. During his presidency income from sugar rose steeply. Despite being unable to send troops to fight in Europe, Cuba played a significant role as a base to protect the West Indies from German U-boat attacks. A draft law was instituted, and 25, Cuban troops raised, but the war ended before they could be sent into action. Alfredo Zayas , who had taken part in the Liberal rebellion of �17, was elected president in and took office in When the Cuban financial system collapsed after a drop in sugar prices, Zayas secured a loan from the United States in Despite the country's nominal independence, one historian has concluded that the continued U.
President Gerardo Machado was elected by popular vote in , but he was constitutionally barred from reelection. Machado, determined to modernize Cuba, set in motion several massive civil works projects such as the Central Highway, but at the end of his constitutional term he held on to power.
The United States, despite the Platt Amendment, decided not to interfere militarily. The Sergeants' Revolt undermined the institutions and coercive structures of the oligarchic state.
The young and relatively inexperienced revolutionaries found themselves pushed into the halls of state power by worker and peasant mobilisations. Between September and January a loose coalition of radical activists, students, middle-class intellectuals, and disgruntled lower-rank soldiers formed a Provisional Revolutionary Government.
The Grau government promised a 'new Cuba' which would belong to all classes, and the abrogation of the Platt Amendment. While the revolutionary leaders certainly wanted diplomatic recognition by Washington, they believed their legitimacy stemmed from the popular support which brought them to power, and not from the approval of the United States' Department of State.
To this end, throughout the autumn of , the government decreed a dramatic series of reforms. The Platt Amendment was unilaterally abrogated, and all the political parties of the Machadato were dissolved.
The Provisional Government granted autonomy to the University of Havana, women obtained the right to vote, the eight-hour day was decreed, a minimum wage was established for cane-cutters, and compulsory arbitration was promoted. The government created a Ministry of Labour, and a law was passed establishing that 50 per cent of all workers in agriculture, commerce and industry had to be Cuban citizens. The Grau regime set agrarian reform as a priority, promising peasants legal title to their lands.
For the first time in Cuban history the country was governed by people who did not negotiate the terms of political power with Spain before , or with the United States after The Provisional Government survived until January , when it was overthrown by an equally loose anti-government coalition of right-wing civilian and military elements. Led by a young mestizo sergeant, Fulgencio Batista , this movement was supported by the United States. In , Cuba conducted free and fair national elections.
The reorganization of the labor movement during this time was capped with the establishment of the Confederacion de Trajabadores de Cuba Confederation of Cuban Workers, or CTC , in However, in , the Communists lost control of the CTC, and their influence in the trade union movement gradually declined into the s.
The assumption of the Presidency by Batista in and the intervening years to placed tremendous strain on the labor movement, with some independent union leaders resigning from the CTC in opposition to Batista's rule. A populist physician, who had briefly held the presidency in the revolutionary process, Grau made a deal with labor unions to continue Batista's pro-labor policies. He instituted programs of public works and school construction, increasing social security benefits and encouraging economic development and agricultural production.
However, increased prosperity brought increased corruption, with nepotism and favoritism flourishing in the political establishment, and urban violence, a legacy of the early s, reappearing on a large scale. Around the same time, Fidel Castro became a public figure at the University of Havana. Taking advantage of the opportunity, Batista, who was expected to win only a small minority of the presidential vote, seized power in an almost bloodless coup three months before the election was to take place.
Due to the corruption of the previous two administrations, the general public reaction to the coup was somewhat accepting at first.
However, Batista soon encountered stiff opposition when he temporarily suspended the balloting and the constitution, and attempted to rule by decree. Nonetheless, elections were held in and Batista was re-elected under disputed circumstances. Opposition parties mounted a blistering campaign, and continued to do so, using the Cuban free press throughout Batista's tenure in office.
Although corruption was rife under Batista, Cuba did flourish economically during his regime. Wages rose significantly; [] according to the International Labour Organization , the average industrial salary in Cuba was the world's eighth-highest in , and the average agricultural wage was higher than in developed nations such as Denmark, West Germany, Belgium, and France.
In the s, Cuba's gross domestic product GDP per capita was roughly equal to that of contemporary Italy, and significantly higher than that of countries such as Japan, although Cuba's GDP per capita was still only a sixth as large as that of the United States. Cuba also had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios during this period.
According to the United Nations, 58 different daily newspapers operated in Cuba during the late s, more than any Latin American country save Brazil, Argentina and Mexico.
Moreover, Cuba's health service was remarkably developed. By the late s, it had one of the highest numbers of doctors per capita � more than in the United Kingdom at that time � and the third-lowest adult mortality rate in the world. However, the United States, rather than Latin America, was the frame of reference for educated Cubans. Large income disparities arose due to the extensive privileges enjoyed by Cuba's unionized workers.
Cuba's labour regulations ultimately caused economic stagnation. Hugh Thomas asserts that "militant unions succeeded in maintaining the position of unionized workers and, consequently, made it difficult for capital to improve efficiency. Unemployment was high; many university graduates could not find jobs.
In , while receiving military, financial, and logistical support from the United States, [] [] Batista suspended the Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations , and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans.
These murders mounted in , as Fidel Castro gained more publicity and influence. Many people were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to about 20, people killed.
In , Fidel Castro , a young lawyer running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Partido Ortodoxo , founded in to oppose government corruption and reform, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process. However, the courts did not act on the petition and ignored Castro's legal challenges. The attack ended in failure � the authorities killed several of the insurgents, captured Castro himself, tried him and sentenced him to 15 years in prison.
However, the Batista government released him in , when amnesty was given to many political prisoners, including the ones that assaulted the Moncada barracks. Castro and his brother subsequently went into exile in Mexico, where they met the Argentine revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara.
In December , Fidel Castro led a group of 82 fighters to Cuba aboard the yacht Granma , landing in the eastern part of the island. Castro managed to escape into the Sierra Maestra mountains with as few as 12 fighters, aided by the urban and rural opposition, including Celia Sanchez and the bandits of Cresencio Perez's family. Growing anti-Batista resistance, including a bloodily crushed rising by Cuban Navy personnel in Cienfuegos, soon led to chaos in the country.
At the same time, rival guerrilla groups in the Escambray Mountains also grew more effective. Castro attempted to arrange a general strike in , but could not win support among Communists or labor unions.
The United States imposed trade restrictions on the Batista administration and sent an envoy who attempted to persuade Batista to leave the country voluntarily.
Within months of taking control, Castro moved to consolidate his power by marginalizing other resistance groups and figures and imprisoning and executing opponents and dissident former supporters. The new government of Cuba soon encountered opposition from militant groups and from the United States, which had supported Batista politically and economically.
Loyalty to Castro and the revolution became the primary criterion for all appointments. After Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo formed an anti-Castro foreign legion of 3, soldiers-of-fortune, including Cuban exiles and Spanish volunteers from the Blue Division which had fought for Germany on the Eastern Front during WWII , Castro sponsored or organized several attempts to unseat him.
Trujillo's forces quickly routed the invaders. A few survivors managed to swim to the shore and escape into the forest; the military used napalm to get them out. In a national referendum ratified a new constitution , with Smith , who had been close to Batista. Foreign-policy professor Piero Gleijeses argued that if Castro had accepted these parameters, he would be allowed to stay in power. Otherwise he would be overthrown. Among the opponents of Batista, many wanted to accommodate the United States.
However, Castro belonged to a faction which opposed U. Castro did not forgive the U. On 5 June , at the height of the revolution, he had written: "The Americans are going to pay dearly for what they are doing. When the war is over, I'll start a much longer and bigger war of my own: the war I'm going to fight against them.
That will be my true destiny". Only six months after Castro seized power, the Eisenhower administration began to plot his ouster. The United Kingdom was persuaded [ by whom? In January Roy R. Rubottom, Jr. In April a downward trend in US�Cuban relations had been evident� In June we had reached the decision that it was not possible to achieve our objectives with Castro in power and had agreed to undertake the program referred to by Undersecretary of State Livingston T.
On 31 October in agreement with the Central Intelligence Agency , the Department had recommended to the President approval of a program along the lines referred to by Mr. The approved program authorized us to support elements in Cuba opposed to the Castro government while making Castro's downfall seem to be the result of his own mistakes. The CIA blamed the explosion on the Cuban government.
Relations between the United States and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the refusal of Royal Dutch Shell , Standard Oil and Texaco to refine petroleum from the Soviet Union in Cuban refineries under their control, took control of those refineries in July The Eisenhower administration promoted a boycott of Cuba by oil companies, to which Cuba responded by nationalizing the refineries in August Both sides continued to escalate the dispute.
In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law, on 17 May , the state sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to small farmers in "Vital Minimum" tracts. This law served as a pretext for seizing lands held by foreigners and for redistributing them to Cuban citizens.
The United States severed diplomatic relations with Cuba on 3 January , and further restricted trade in February The Kennedy administration extended this ban on 8 February , forbidding U. However, the United States later pressured other nations and American companies with foreign subsidiaries to restrict trade with Cuba.
The Helms�Burton Act of makes it very difficult for foreign companies doing business with Cuba to also do business in the United States, forcing them to choose between the two marketplaces. In April , less than four months into the Kennedy administration, the Central Intelligence Agency CIA executed a plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration.
But by 20 April, the brigade surrendered and was publicly interrogated before being sent back to the US. Recently inaugurated president John F. Kennedy assumed full responsibility for the operation, even though he had vetoed the reinforcements requested during the battle. The invasion helped further build popular support for the new Cuban government. Tensions between the two governments peaked again during the October Cuban Missile Crisis.
The United States had a much larger arsenal of long-range nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union, as well as medium-range ballistic missiles MRBMs in Turkey, whereas the Soviet Union had a large stockpile of medium-range nuclear weapons which were primarily located in Europe. Reports from inside Cuba to exile sources questioned the need for large amounts of ice going to rural areas, which led to the discovery of the missiles, confirmed by Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance photos.
The United States responded by establishing a cordon in international waters to stop Soviet ships from bringing in more missiles designated a quarantine rather than a blockade to avoid issues with international law. At the same time, Castro was getting a little too extreme for the liking of Moscow, so at the last moment the Soviets called back their ships.
In addition, they agreed to remove the missiles already there in exchange for an agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba. Only after the fall of the Soviet Union was it revealed that another part of the agreement was the removal of U. It also turned out that some submarines that the U. Navy blocked were carrying nuclear missiles and that communication with Moscow was tenuous, effectively leaving the decision of firing the missiles at the discretion of the captains of those submarines.
In the New Year's Day parade, the Communist administration exhibited Soviet tanks and other weapons. The camps continued as "Military Units". By the s, the standard of living in Cuba was "extremely spartan" and discontent was rife.
The solution was to criminalize unemployment with Anti-Loafing Law; the unemployed would be put into jail. In any given year, there were about 20, dissidents held and tortured under inhuman prison conditions. The establishment of a socialist system in Cuba led to the fleeing of many hundreds of thousands of upper- and middle-class Cubans to the United States and other countries since Castro's rise to power.
By , thousands of Cubans had fled Cuba for the United States. On 22 March of that year, an exile council was formed. Between and , some 1. Between 30, and 80, Cubans are estimated to have died trying flee Cuba during this period.
Over the course of several decades, a number of Cuban Jews were allowed to emigrate to Israel after quiet negotiations; the majority of the 10, or so Jews who were in Cuba in eventually left the country. By the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cubans were living in many different countries, some in member countries of the European Union. Spain, Italy, Mexico, and Canada have particularly large Cuban communities.
The first of these so-called Freedom Flights left Cuba on 1 December , and by over , Cubans had flown to the United States. In another , came to United States during a six-month period in the Mariel boatlift , including some criminals and people with psychiatric diagnoses.
It was discovered that the Cuban government was using the event to rid Cuba of the unwanted segments of its society. In , Cuba abolished its requirement for exit permits, allowing Cuban citizens to travel to other countries more easily.
From its inception, the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist , seeking to spread its revolutionary ideals abroad and gain a variety of foreign allies. Although still a developing country itself, Cuba supported African, Central and South American and Asian countries in the fields of military development, health and education.
The Sandinista insurgency in Nicaragua , which led to the demise of the Somoza dictatorship in , was openly supported by Cuba. However, it was on the African continent where Cuba was most active, supporting a total of 17 liberation movements or leftist governments, in countries including Angola , Equatorial Guinea , Ethiopia , Guinea-Bissau , and Mozambique.
Cuba offered to send troops to Vietnam , but the initiative was turned down by the Vietnamese. Cuban soldiers were instrumental in the defeat of South African and Zairian troops. Moscow used Cuban surrogate troops in Africa and the Middle East because they had a high level of training for combat in Third World environments, familiarity with Soviet weapons, physical toughness and a tradition of successful guerrilla warfare dating back to the uprisings against Spain in the 19th century.
Cuba was unable to pay on its own for the costs of its overseas military activities. Cuban troops began to arrive in Angola in early October The Cubans blocked an advancing South African mechanized column on 4 November with mm rocket fire, causing the South Africans to request heavy artillery which could out-distance the rockets.
Castro reacted to the presence of the South African armored column by announcing Operation Carlota , a massive resupply of Angola, on 5 November.
An anti-Communist force made up of 1, FNLA fighters, Portuguese mercenaries, and two battalions of the Zairian army passed near the city of Quifangondo, only 30 km north of Luanda , at dawn on 10 November. The force, supported by South African aircraft and three mm artillery pieces, marched in a single line along the Bengo River to face an strong Cuban force across the river. The Cubans suffered no casualties.
The Cubans were severely defeated, losing killed. The SADF suffered only 4 casualties. Following these defeats, the number of Cuban troops airlifted to Angola more than doubled, from about per week to perhaps 1, The Cuban forces mounted a counter-offensive beginning in January that impelled South African withdrawal by the end of March.
South Africa spent the following decade launching bombing and strafing raids from its bases in South West Africa into southern Angola. The irregulars laid minefields which caused the Cubans some casualties as they pursued them into the jungle. Further skirmishing continued throughout the month. In early April, the irregulars were encircled and cut off from supplies.
Nearly FLEC irregulars were killed over two nights as they tried to break their encirclement; a further irregulars died and were taken prisoner when the Cubans moved in for the kill the next day.
The Cuban press described the campaign as follows:. The Cubans were obliged to accept the challenge and fight on terrain selected by the South Africans while taking measures to strike at the enemy in another direction. On 13 January of this year there was a South African offensive on Cuito Cuanavale and another big attack on 14 February where armored vehicles were used. The second attack was thwarted by a small group of tanks.
On 25 February, 1 March and 23 March came the last three attacks that were repulsed with heavy losses for the enemy. Thousands of mines were planted which destroyed many South African tanks. The enemy offensive was shattered by the Angolan and Cuban forces. At the height of its operation, Cuba had as many as 50, soldiers stationed in Angola.
The Cuban intervention, for a short time, turned Cuba into a "global player" in the midst of the Cold War. Their presence helped the MPLA retain control over large parts of Angola, and their military actions are also credited with helping secure Namibia's independence.
The withdrawal of the Cubans ended 13 years of foreign military presence in Angola. At the same time, Cuba removed its troops from the Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia.
They helped in military planning and they were in charge of the artillery. However, a truce between the two North African countries was signed within the week. However, the rebellion ended in failure. Congo-Brazzaville furthermore acted as a supply base for the Angola mission.
In late , there were 4, Cuban tank troops in Syria as part of an armored brigade which took part in the Yom Kippur War until May Fidel Castro was a supporter of the Marxist�Leninist dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam , whose regime killed hundreds of thousands during the Ethiopian Red Terror of the late s, and who was later convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity.
Cuba provided substantial military support to Mariam during the latter's conflict with the Somali dictator Siad Barre in the Ogaden War July �March , stationing around 24, troops in Ethiopia. From October until January , the Somali forces attempted to capture Harar during the Battle of Harar , where 40, Ethiopians had regrouped and re-armed with Soviet-supplied artillery and armor; backed by 1, Soviet advisors 34 of whom died in Ethiopia, �90 and 16, Cuban troops, [] they engaged the attackers in vicious fighting.
Though the Somali forces reached the city outskirts by November, they were too exhausted to take the city and eventually had to withdraw to await the Ethiopian counterattack.
Casualties among the Somalis may have totaled as many as 40, since the start of the war. The expected Ethiopian-Cuban attack occurred in early February; however, it was accompanied by a second attack that the Somalis did not expect. A column of Ethiopian and Cuban troops crossed northeast into the highlands between Jijiga and the border with Somalia, bypassing the Somali force defending the Marda Pass.
The attackers were thus able to assault from two directions in a "pincer" action, allowing the re-capture of Jijiga in only two days while killing 3, defenders. Recognizing that his position was untenable, Siad Barre ordered the Somali armed forces to retreat back into Somalia on 9 March Cuba lost killed in the conventional war, [] but its heaviest casualties came in the irregular war that followed.
From March to November , irregular hostilities claimed, according to the WSLF , 60, lives, [] including 25, civilians and 6, Cuban soldiers supporting the Ethiopians. The Soviet Union saw the new revolutionary government in Cuba as an excellent proxy agent in areas of the world where Soviet involvement was not popular on a local level.
Starting from the mids, [] Cuba experienced a crisis referred to as the " Special Period ". When the Soviet Union, the country's primary source of trade, was dissolved in late , a major supporter of Cuba's economy was lost, leaving it essentially paralyzed because of the economy's narrow basis, focused on just a few products with just a few buyers.
National oil supplies, which were mostly imported, were severely reduced. A "Special Period in Peacetime" was declared, which included cutbacks on transport and electricity and even food rationing. In response, the United States tightened up its trade embargo, hoping it would lead to Castro's downfall. But the government tapped into a pre-revolutionary source of income and opened the country to tourism, entering into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects.
As a result, the use of U. There were two separate economies, dollar-economy and the peso-economy, creating a social split in the island because those in the dollar-economy made much more money as in the tourist-industry. However, in October , the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November U. A Canadian Medical Association Journal paper states that "The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mids.
Both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food to which they were entitled when the public food distribution collapsed; priority was given to the elite classes and the military. In the Havana zoo, the peacocks , the buffalo and even the rhea were reported to have disappeared during this period. Extreme food shortages and electrical blackouts led to a brief period of unrest, including numerous anti-government protests and widespread increases in urban crime.
In response, the Cuban Communist Party formed hundreds of "rapid-action brigades" to confront protesters. The Communist Party's daily publication, Granma , stated that "delinquents and anti-social elements who try to create disorder and an atmosphere of mistrust and impunity in our society will receive a crushing reply from the people". In July , 41 Cubans drowned attempting to flee the country aboard a tugboat ; the Cuban government was later accused of sinking the vessel deliberately.
Thousands of Cubans protested in Havana during the Maleconazo uprising on 5 August However, the regime's security forces swiftly dispersed them. Although contacts between Cubans and foreign visitors were made legal in , [] [] extensive censorship had isolated it from the rest of the world. In , a group led by Vladimiro Roca , a decorated veteran of the Angolan war and the son of the founder of the Cuban Communist Party , sent a petition, entitled La Patria es de Todos "the homeland belongs to all" to the Cuban general assembly, requesting democratic and human rights reforms.
As a result, Roca and his three associates were sentenced to imprisonment, from which they were eventually released. President Jimmy Carter during his visit to Cuba.
The petition gathered sufficient signatures to be considered by the Cuban government, but was rejected on an alleged technicality. Instead, a plebiscite was held in which it was formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual. In , Castro cracked down on independent journalists and other dissidents in an episode which became known as the " Black Spring ".
Though it was largely diplomatically isolated from the West at this time, Cuba nonetheless cultivated regional allies. In , Fidel Castro fell ill and withdrew from public life. In a letter dated 18 February , Fidel Castro announced his formal resignation at the National Assembly meetings, saying "I will not aspire nor accept�I repeat I will not aspire or accept�the post of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief.
As of , Cuba remains one of the few officially socialist states in the world. Though it remains diplomatically isolated and afflicted by economic inefficiency, major currency reforms were begun in the s, and efforts to free up domestic private enterprise are now underway.
In July , Cuba received its first American goods shipment in over 50 years, following the partial relaxation of the U. President Barack Obama announced plans to re-establish diplomatic relations with Cuba after over five decades of severance. Obama's proposal received both strong criticism and praise from different elements of the Cuban American community.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Historical development of Cuba. Part of a series on the. Main article: Slavery in Cuba. See also: History of Cuban nationality. See also: Ostend manifesto. Main article: Cuban War of Independence. Main article: Spanish�American War. Main article: Republic of Cuba � This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page.
Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. August Learn how and when to remove this template message. Main article: Cuban Revolution. Main article: Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution. Further information: Cuba under Fidel Castro. Main article: Bay of Pigs Invasion. Main article: Cuban Missile Crisis.
See also: Grey years. Main articles: Cuban exodus and Cuban exile. Main articles: Cuban military internationalism and Foreign interventions by Cuba. Main article: Cuban intervention in Angola. Main article: Special Period. Main article: Cuban Thaw. Archived from the original on 7 November Retrieved 27 November Retrieved 24 April Latin American Perspectives. JSTOR S2CID Transaction Publishers. Palgrave Macmillan.
Retrieved 11 January Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 16 July Retrieved 16 July Archived from the original on 18 October Retrieved 21 October BBC News. Archived from the original on 17 December Retrieved 18 December The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 April Retrieved 18 April Archived from the original on 18 August Retrieved 27 August The Economist.
Archived from the original on 24 February Retrieved 9 February Biblioteca Ayacucho: Caracas The Worlds of Christopher Columbus reprint, illustrated ed. Cambridge University Press. ISBN Early Mapping of Southeast Asia.
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