Diy Canoe Building Plans Meaning

Coastal Rowing Boats with Sliding Seat For Sale | The Row Boat | England

Sell Your Boat. Motor Boat. Small Boat. Jetboat and Vagabonv. All Sailboat for sale Sailboat by Type:. All Engine vagabond 4.7 touring boat away sale Engine by Category:.

All Berth for sale Berth by Category:. All Trailer for sale Trailer by Category:. All categories All categories. Please select a location from the drop-down list. Sailboat by Model 47 3. Sailboat by Type Cruisers 1. Avgabond Yachts 1. Classics 1. Sailboat by Country United States Portugal 1. Netherlands 1. Greece 1. United Kingdom 1. Sailboat by Condition Used 2. Sailboat by Year 1. Fiberglass 2. Sailboat by Length 8 - Expired ads. Vagabond Sailboat for sale 14 results Browse all the Vagabond Sailboat for sale we have advertised below or use the filters on the left hand vagabond 4.7 touring boat away to narrow your search.

Get email alerts for new ads matching this search. Sort by Please select sort by relevance oldest first lowest price highest price latest near me. Enter your email below Create email alert. You've created an email alert. You'll start receiving emails with vagabond 4.7 touring boat away similar to this search.

Vagabond - 47 Subcategory Sailing Yachts. Full gerefit sailing yacht with 8 fixed berths After a very awaay refit, this ship was Jachtmakelaardij Kappers. Vagabond - 42 Subcategory Classics. Classic vagabonnd yacht Vagabond 47 version 3 cabins and 2 WC.

Spacious cockpit with steering Vagabond - 47 Subcategory Cruisers. Flying Fyn is a stunning example of the well regarded Vagabond - 47 Subcategory Sailboat. Turner Marine Yacht Sales. Find the boat of your dreams on Europe's leading marketplace for boats and yachts. On boatshop Motor boats for sale. Sailboats for sale. Boat news.

Boat advice. Market your boat. Register your vagabond 4.7 touring boat away. Boat Trader magazine. Customer testimonials. Quicksilver Weekend. Jet Ski for tourijg. Jeanneau boats for sale. Business tourjng info.

All Partners. Sign me up to the Boatshop Cruisers 1. Greece 1 Netherlands 1. Portugal 1 United Kingdom 1. United States

Update:

To achieve this we will operate the spare cloak of glue initial to sign a timber after that request the cloak of normal outward paint to strengthen a wooden from UV damage. With a glue, a little options stay drawn out in touting of a variants.

Vagabond 4.7 touring boat away sea preserving abilities, we presumably can simply take plywood sections of your sought after form in the unequivocally low-cost worth, Vagabond 4.7 touring boat away upon a hyperlink beneath, blows a competitors divided with the countless fishing as well as domicile options.

There have been websites clinging to uncover vessel fanatics as well as do-it-your self persons methods to emanate their own vessel. Receptive to advice straightforward.

I also agree to receive email newsletters, account updates, notifications and communications from other profiles, sent by germanydating. A must-read for English-speaking expatriates and internationals across Europe, Expatica provides a tailored local news service and essential information on living, working, and moving to your country of choice.

With in-depth features, Expatica brings the international community closer together. Amongst other services, Expatica offers the best dating site for Expats in Germany since Finding love is a challenging quest even in your home country. Dating in Germany will either make it more so or raise the chance to finally get the partner you've been looking for all along.

Dating for expats info. Living in Germany is an incredible opportunity to rediscover and reinvent yourself, including the romantic side of your life. Chapman Report, The Charley Varrick Cheyenne Autumn Child in the Crowd, A Children of Heaven Children of Men Chimes at Midnight Christmas on Earth Chronicle of a Summer Chungking Express Cinema Paradiso City of Sadness, A Claire's Knee Clash by Night Cleo from 5 to 7 Clockwork Orange, A Cocksucker Blues Color of Love, The Colorado Territory Vagabond 4.7 Touring Boat Review Colossal Youth Come Back, Africa Condition of Illusion Confidential Report Conformist, The Consolation Service Conversation Piece Conversation, The Cool Hand Luke Cool World, The Couch series Country Doctor, The Cries and Whispers Cronaca familiare Crucified Lovers, The Cruel Romance, A Crying Game, The Cuadecuc-Vampir Cyrano de Bergerac Dancer in the Dark Danger: Diabolik Dans le noir du temps David and Lisa Dawn of the Dead Days of Being Wild Days of Heaven Days of the Eclipse Dazed and Confused Dead Poets Society Death by Hanging Death in Venice Decision Before Dawn Deer Hunter, The Demon Lover Diary Departure, The Devil Probably, The Devil Rides Out, The Diaboliques, Les Diamonds of the Night Diary for Timothy, A Die Gezeichneten Difficult Life, A Dillinger Is Dead Dirty Story, A Disenchantment, The Distant Thunder Divine Intervention Divorce Italian Style Do The Right Thing Doctor Zhivago Dog Day Afternoon Dog's Life, A Don't Look Back Don't Look Now Don't Worry Double Indemnity Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Strangelove Dragon Gate Inn Dresden Dynamo Drowning by Numbers Drunken Master II Duck You Sucker Dust in the Wind Easy Life, The Eat the Document Echo of the Jackboot Edouard et Caroline Eight Deadly Shots Elephant Man, The Elvira Madigan Emigrants, The Emperor of the North End of Summer, The Enfance nue, L' Engagement, The Enter the Dragon Enter the Void Entr'acte Entranced Earth Equinox Flower Erin Brockovich Eros Plus Massacre Errand Boy, The Executioner, The Eyes Wide Shut Eyes Without a Face Fallen Idol, The Fanny and Alexander Far From Heaven Farewell My Concubine Father and Daughter Father of a Soldier Fear Eats the Soul Female Trouble Femme Douce, Une Femmes, Femmes Fertile Memory Feu follet, Le Film Socialisme Fires on the Plain Fires Were Started Fistful of Dollars, A Five Easy Pieces Flaming Creatures Floating Clouds Floating Weeds Flowers of Shanghai Forbidden Zone, The Foreign Correspondent Forest of Bliss Forty First, The Fox and His Friends Frankenstein Unbound From the Notebook of�.

Front Page, The Frontier Blues Full Metal Jacket Full Moon in Paris Gates of Heaven, The Gay Divorce, The George Washington German Sisters, The Germany in Autumn Germany Pale Mother Germany Year Zero Geschichte der Nacht Giants and Toys Girl Chewing Gum, The Go-Between, The God's Comedy Gold Diggers of Gold Rush, The Golden Coach, The Golden Eighties Golden Thread, The Gone with the Wind Good Men Good Women Goodbye Lenin!

Goodbye, Dragon Inn Goto, Island of Love Grapes of Wrath, The Great Dictator, The Great Escape, The Great Expectations Great Madcap, The Great Sacrifice, The Green Ray, The Grin Without a Cat, A Guns of the Trees Guys and Dolls Halfway House, The Hanoi, Tuesday 13th Happy Together Harlan County, USA Harold and Maude Hart of London, The Hawks and Sparrows Headless Woman, The Heart in Winter, A Heart of Glass Hearts and Minds Heaven's Gate Hellzapoppin' Here and Elsewhere Himmler Project, The Hiroshima Mon Amour His Girl Friday His Wife is a Hen History Lessons Holly Girl, The Hollywood or Bust Holy Mountain, The Home from the Hill Horse Thief, The Hotel des Ameriques Hotel Terminus Hour of the Wolf House is Black, The Housemaid, The How to be Loved Human Pyramid, The Husbands and Wives I Am Curious Yellow I Knew Her Well I Was Born, But� I was Nineteen I'm Alright Jack I'm No Angel Ice Storm, The Imitation of Christ Imitation of Life In a Lonely Place In a Year of 13 Moons In the City of Sylvia In The Mood For Love In Vanda's Room India: Matri Bhumi Indio nacional Infernal Affairs Inglourious Basterds Inmigrant, The Inmortal Story, The Innocence unprotected Innocents, The Insect Woman, The Institute Benjamenta Intentions of Murder Intimate Lighting Island of Lost Souls It Happened One Night It's a Gift Ivan the Terrible Ivan the Terrible II Ivan's Childhood Japanese Village, A Je vous salue, Marie Jesus of Montreal Jingi no hakaba Johnny Gaddaar Johnny Got His Gun Jour se Leve, Le Journey to Italy Julien Donkey Boy Juvenile Court Kaagaz Ke Phool Karnival Kid, The Killer of Sheep King In New York, A King of Comedy, The Kings of the Road Kiss Me Deadly Knife in the Water Kramer vs.

Kramer Lacemaker, The Lacombe, Lucien Ladies Man, The Lady Vanishes, The Ladybird Ladybird Ladykillers, The Lancelot Du Lac Land and Freedom Land of Fathers Land Without Bread Landscape in the Mist Landscape Suicide Last Bolshevik, The Last Command, The Last Emperor, The Last Laugh, The Last Metro, The Last Movie, The Last Supper, The Last Tango in Paris Last Train Home Last Wave, The Late Chrysanthemums Laughing Man, The Lawrence of Arabia Left Handed Gun, The Lessons of Darkness Let the Right One In Letters from Iwo Jima Life and Nothing More Life of Oharu, The Lift to the Scaffold Line of Destiny, The Listen to Britain Lives of Others, The Long Absence, The Long Day Closes, The Long Farewell, The Long Goodbye, The Long Gray Line, The Long Voyage Home, The Looking for Langston Lost Lost Lost Lousiana Story Love in the Afternoon Love Me Tonight Love of a Woman, The Love Torn in a Dream Lusty Men, The Mad Masters, The Mademoiselle Chambon Make Way for Tomorrow Maltese Falcon, The Man and a Woman, A Man Escaped, A Man in the White Suit Man of the Story Man on the Roof, The Man There Was, A Man Who Laughs, The Man Who Lies, The Man's Castle Manila by Night Margot at the Wedding Marie Antoinette Marriage Circle, The Married Couple, A Marseillaise, La Masque of Red Death Matter of Time McCabe and Mrs Miller Meet Me In St.

Louis Mein Liebster Feind Melomaniac, The Memories of Murder Memory of the Camps Merry Widow, The Mid-August Lunch In the present exposition, we will assume that Cleopatra has a near-circular track.

This is another of those questions that cannot be answered for sure in the current state of knowledge. But we can make an educated guess. Therefore it changes more slowly than one might think. At the same time, the actual mean temperature at the surface of Earth is considerably greater than such calculations make it out to be, largely because the atmosphere maintains a vast reservoir of heat in the well-known greenhouse effect.

And air and water together protect us from such day-night extremes as Luna suffers. The tropics might not be usable by men, but the higher latitudes and uplands ought to be pretty good. Remember, though, that this bit of arithmetic has taken no account of atmosphere or hydrosphere.

I think they would smooth things out considerably. On the one hand, they do trap heat; on the other hand, clouds reflect back a great deal of light, which thus never has a chance to reach the surface; and both gases and liquids blot up, or redistribute, What does get through. My best guess is, therefore, that while Cleopatra will generally be somewhat warmer than Earth, the difference will be less than an oversimplified calculation suggests.

The tropics will usually be hot, but nowhere unendurable; and parts of them, cooled by altitude or sea breezes, may well be quite balmy. There will probably be no polar ice caps, but tall mountains ought to have their eternal snows. Pleasant climates should prevail through higher latitudes than is the case on Earth.

You may disagree, in which case you have quite another story to tell. By all means, go ahead. Varying opinions make science fiction yarns as well as horse races. Alas for ease, this involves two factors, the mass of the sun and the size of the orbit. The year-length is inversely proportional to the square root of the former, and directly proportional to the square root of the cube of the semi-major axis. So here we need two graphs.

Figure 4 shows the relationship of period to distance from the sun within our solar system. We see, for instance, that body twice as far out as Earth is takes almost three times as long to complete a circuit.

At a remove of 1. But our imaginary sun is more massive than Sol. Therefore its gravitational grip is stronger and, other things being equal, it swings its children around faster.

Figure 5 charts inverse square roots. For a mass of 1. If we multiply together the figures taken off these two graphs �1. That is, our planet takes 1. Its year lasts about fifteen of our months. I used a slide rule. But for those not inclined to do likewise, the diagrams will furnish numbers which can be used to get at least a general idea of how some fictional planet will behave. Let me point out afresh that these are nevertheless important numbers, a part of the pseudo-reality the writer hopes to create.

What does this do to the seasons, the calendar, the entire rhythm of life? We shall need more information before we can answer such questions, but it is not too early to start thinking about them. Although more massive than Sol, the sun of Cleopatra is not much bigger. Not only is volume a cube function of radius, which would make the diameter just six percent greater if densities were equal, but densities are not equal.

The heavier stars must be more compressed by their own weight than are the lighter ones. Hence we can say that all suns which more or less resemble Sol have more or less the same size. Now our imaginary planet and its luminary are further apart than our real ones.

Therefore the sun must look smaller in the Cleopatran than in the terrestrial sky. That is, in the present case we have a star whose breadth, in terms of Sol, is 1, while its distance is 1. In other words, our imaginary sun looks a bit smaller in the heavens than does our real one.

This might be noticeable, even striking, when it was near the horizon, the common optical illusion at such times exaggerating its size. What might the psychological effects of that be? Otherwise it would make no particular diiference�since no one could safely look near so brilliant a thing without heavy eye protection�except that shadows would tend to be more sharp-edged than on Earth.

Those shadows ought also to have a more marked bluish tinge, especially on white surfaces. Indeed, all color values are subtly changed by the light upon Cleopatra. I suspect men would quickly get used to that; but perhaps not. Most likely, so active a sun produces some auroras that put the terrestrial kind to shame, as well as occasional severe interference with radio, power lines, and the like.

But there is still a possible story or two in this point. An oxygen-containing atmosphere automatically develops an ozone layer which screens out most of the ultraviolet. Nevertheless, humans would have to be more careful about sunburn than on Earth, especially in the lower latitudes or on the seas.

The planetary system lies in Ursa Major, light-years from Sol. This causes certain changes in the appearance of the heavens. Northerly constellations are "spread out" and most of the familiar stars in them show brighter than at Earth, though some have left the configurations because, seen from here, they now lie in a southerly direction.

Fainter stars in them, invisible at Earth, have become naked-eye objects. These changes are the greater the nearer one looks toward Ursa Major. It is itself modified quite out of recognition by the untrained eye, as are the constellations closest to it. The further away one looks, around the celestial sphere, the less distortion. Southern constellations are comparatively little affected. Those near the south celestial pole of Earth, such as Octans, keep their shapes the best, though they exhibit the most shrinkage in angular size.

Various of their fainter stars as seen from Earth are now invisible�Sol is too�but they have been replaced by others which as seen from Earth "originally" were northern. Thus to a native of the Terrestrial northern hemisphere the sky seems considerably changed around the Dippers, Cassiopeia, etc. But Orion, for example, is still identifiable; and the constellations that an Australian or Argentinian is used to are not much altered.

However�the celestial hemispheres of Cleopatra are not identical with those of Earth. There is no definite lodestar, but Pisces turns around a point in its own middle, accompanied by neighbors such as Virgo, Pegasus, and Aquarius. The south celestial pole is near Crater. The constellations that Earthmen are accustomed to seeing high in either sky are here�insofar as they are recognizable�always low, and many are only to be observed at given seasons.

Under these circumstances, it may be most convenient for colonists to redraw the star map entirely, making new constellations out of what they see. Or perhaps this will happen of itself in the course of generations. First, where in the universe is the star? True, Alpha Centauri A is almost a twin, and its closer companion is not much different.

However, this is a multiple system. That does not necessarily rule out its having planets; but the possibility of this is controversial, and in any event it would complicate things too much for the present essay if we had more than one sun. Rather than picking a real star out of an astronomical catalogue, though that is frequently a good idea, I made mine up, and arbitrarily put it about four hundred light-years off in the direction of Ursa Major.

This is unspecific enough�it defines such a huge volume of space�that something corresponding is bound to be out there someplace. Seen from that location, the boreal constellations are considerably changed, though most remain recognizable. The austral constellations have suffered the least alteration, the equatorial ones are intermediately affected.

But who says the celestial hemispheres of Cleopatra must be identical with those of Earth? For all we know, its axis could be at right angles to ours. Thus a writer can invent picturesque descriptions of the night sky and of the images which people see there. Here you will have to play around with selecting various values for mass, density, and radius until you get results you like.

They are closely interrelated. Habitable Planets for Man suggested that the maximum gravity for a human-habitable planet should be about 1. Cleopatra is smaller than Earth. In terms of the latter planet, its mass is 0. This last means that, for example, a human who weighed 80 kg on Earth weighs For instance, aircraft need less wing area but ground vehicles need more effective brakes.

An object falling through a given distance takes 1. Now what about the planet itself? If we have been a long time in coming to that, it simply emphasizes the fact that no body� and nobody�exists in isolation from the whole universe.

Were the globe otherwise identical with Earth, we would already have innumerable divergences. Therefore let us play with some further variations. For instance, how big or small can it be? Too big, and it will keep most of its primordial hydrogen and helium, as our great outer planets have done; it will be even more alien than are Mars or Luna.

In such an area of mystery, the science fiction writer is free to guess. But let us go at the problem from another angle. How much gravity�or how little�can mankind tolerate for an extended period of time? We know that both high weight, such as is experienced in a centrifuge, and zero weight, such as is experienced in an orbiting spacecraft, have harmful effects.

However, it seems reasonable to assume that men and women can adjust to some such range as 0. That is, a person who weighs pounds on Earth can safely live where he weighs as little as or as much as Of course, he will undergo somatic changes, for instance in the muscles; but we can suppose these are adaptive, not pathological.

The reference to women is not there as a concession to militant liberationists. It takes both sexes to keep humanity going. The Spaniards failed to colonize the Peruvian altiplano for the simple reason that, while both they and their wives could learn to breathe the thin air, the wives could not bring babies to term. So the local Indians, with untold generations of natural selection behind them, still dominate that region, racially if not politically.

This is one example of the significance of changing a parameter. Science fiction writers should be able to invent many more. The pull of a planet at its surface depends on its mass and its size.

These two quantities are not independent. Though solid bodies are much less compressible than gaseous ones like stars, still, the larger one of them is, the more it tends to squeeze itself, forming denser allotropes in its interior.

Suppose it has 0. Then, although its total mass is only 0. Our person who weighed pounds here, Weighs about there. I use these particular figures because they are the ones I chose for Cleopatra.

Considering Mars, it seems most implausible that any world that small could retain a decent atmosphere; but considering Venus, it seems as if many Worlds of rather less mass than it or Earth may do so. At least, nobody today can disprove the idea. But since there is less self-compression, have I given Cleopatra an impossibly high density? No, because I am postulating a higher proportion of heavy elements in its makeup than Earth has.

That is not fantastic. Stars, and presumably their planets, do vary in composition. The results of changing the gravity must be far-reaching indeed. Just think how this could influence the gait, the need for systematic exercise, the habit of standing versus sitting are people in low weight more patient about queues? In a lesser gravity, it takes a bit longer to fall some certain distance, and one lands a bit less hard; mountains and dunes tend to be steeper; pendulums of a given length, and waves on water, move slower.

The air pressure falls oif less rapidly with altitude. Thus, here on Earth, at about 18, feet the pressure is one half that at sea level; but on Cleopatra, you must go up to 21, feet for this. The effects on weather, every kind of flying, and the size of life zones bear thinking about. In our present state of ignorance, we have to postulate many things that suit our story purposes but may not be true�for example, that a planet as small as Cleopatra can actually hold an Earth-type atmosphere.

Other postulates�for example, that Cleopatran air is insufficient, or barely sufficient, to sustain human life�are equally legitimate, and lead to quite other stories.

But whatever the writer assumes, let him realize that it will make for countless strangenesses, some radical, some subtle, but each of them all-pervasive, in the environment.

If we have a higher proportion of heavy elements, including radioactive ones, than Earth does, then we doubtless get more internal heat; and the lesser size of Cleopatra also helps pass it outward faster. Thus here we should have more than a terrestrial share of volcanoes, quakes, and related phenomena. I guess there would be plenty of high mountains, some overreaching Everest; but we still know too little about how mountains get raised for this to be much more than a guess.

In some areas, local concentrations of arsenic or whatever may Well make the soil dangerous to man. But on the whole, industry ought to thrive. Conversely, and other things being equal, a metal-poor world is presumably fairly quiescent; a shortage of copper and iron might cause its natives to linger indefinitely in a Stone Age; colonists might have to emphasize a technology based on lighter elements such as aluminum.

How fast does the planet rotate? This is a crucial question, but once more, not one to which present-day science can give a definitive answer. We know that Earth is being slowed down by Luna, so maybe it once spun around far more quickly than now.

Mars, whose satellites are insignificant, turns at nearly the same angular speed, while Venus, with no satellite whatsoever, is exceedingly slow and goes widdershins to boot. It does seem likely that big planets will, by and large, spin rapidly�such as Jupiter, with a period of about ten hours. What's the average planetary temperature? That's hard to calculate. This equation will give you a rough idea, but it predicts a slightly incorrect temperature for Terra.

When I said "rough" I meant it. You can convert from Kelvin to Celsius by using Google search for " This equation gives slightly inaccurate results. That means a planet with an average temperature of K is unsuitable for unprotected humans but might be just perfect for some weird alien life form. Since we decided that Ross planet would have the same sunlight intensity as Terra, if it has the same albedo as Terra it will also have the same average temperature as Terra.

Or the same slightly incorrect temperature the equation gives:. This is not just a comfortable range for human beings, but it is also the temperatures best tolerated by Terran agricultural crops and domesticated animals we use for food. The Sun replaced with other stars. Distance is assumed to be 1 AU in all cases.

Image by Halcyon Maps. If something is shining as a blackbody, its temperature determines its color , because not only does the intensity of the radiated electromagnetic energy change with temperature, so do its wavelengths. The color tends from red toward blue with increasing temperature. They just refer to the wavelength bias. Different elements absorb or emit particular wavelengths of light, and these absorbed wavelengths show up as spectral lines superimposed on the blackbody background.

At higher temperatures more atoms are ionized, because one or more of their electrons are knocked off by the increasingly violent collisions with other atoms. The Sun is a type G2. The effective temperature is the temperature of a perfect blackbody that puts out the same amount of radiation. This not only tells you how much delta V a spacecraft will need to escape from the planet, it also tells you which atmospheric elements will escape into space.

The distance to the horizon calculated geometrically here will not be the same as the distance as seen on a planet with an atmosphere. The pesky atmosphere refracts light so you can see a bit farther, but the actual amount changes with the current temperature gradient. As a rough general rule, you can correct for this by multiplying the value for P radiusM by 1.

It is often mentioned that the horizon on Luna is so close that astronauts felt like they were constantly in danger of stepping off a cliff. Theoretically on a planet with a larger radius that Terra people can see farther and may start to feel like they were tiny ants or otherwise insignificant. Standing on a flat plain or sea, a man of normal height observes the horizon as being about 7 km off, compared to about 8 on Earth�not a terribly striking difference, especially in rugged topography or hazy weather.

I must admit that certain of them scarcely look important. Thus, the horizon distance�for a man standing on a flat plain �is proportional to the square root of the planet's diameter. On Earth it is about five miles, and for globes not very much bigger or smaller, the change will not be striking.

Often mountains, woods, haze, or the like will blot it out entirely� Yet even in this apparent triviality, some skillful writer may see a story.

The basic idea is simple. If a molecule is moving faster than the planet's escape velocity, it goes streaking into the inky depths of space. Otherwise it sticks around and helps comprise the planet's atmosphere. A molecule's speed depends upon two things, the molecule's weight and the molecule's temperature. Molecular weight is easy. You can look it up in Wikipedia or something, all molecules of a given chemical compound have identical masses.

Molecular temperature depends upon the the planet's average temperature. To the right is a table of molecular weights of various gasses likely to be atmospheric components. Temperature is problematic, since my references are a bit vague on whether you should use the temperature at the planet's surface or at the planet's exosphere.

We have the equation for the average temperature of the planet's surface, but not for the exosphere. Otherwise the gas will escape in a few million years, much less the few billion years the planet will need to become habitable.

Figure out the Jeans escape velocity V escJean. Any atmospheric gas in the table which the formula calculates a Mol vel higher than V escJean is not going to be in the planet's atmosphere.

There should be a way to rearrange the equation so it yields the maximum molecular weight a planet can hang on to, but I'm getting odd results when I try. Please note this is for a primordial planetary atmosphere. Specifically if the planet has no life more specifically: no plants there is not going to be any oxygen in the atmosphere. Oxygen is too darn reactive: any that shows up in the atmosphere is quickly turned into oxide minerals.

The only way a planet can have O 2 in the atmo is if it is continuously renewed, and that means plant life. Whether an atmosphere is breathable for human beings depends upon percentage of oxygen and the barometric pressure.

See the chart. Having said that, if the percentage of oxygen is too high, everything is constantly catching on fire. Fossil Cretaceous charcoal deposits suggest that Tyrannosaurus Rex spent a lot of time fleeing forest fires and constantly getting a hotfoot. Paleontologists could not figure out how pteranodon biochemistry could possibly generate enough energy to allow the creatures to fly.

This also explains the curious geological layers at the K�T boundary. This was when the Dinosaur Killer asteroid wiped them out.

The geological layers show an iridum layer from the asteroid strike, followed by a world-wide layer of finely divided carbon.

That's where the carbon layer came from. Any dinosaur that managed to avoid being barbecued in the continental fire-storms would have starved to death as the following two years of black clouds killed off all the plants. Atmospheric pressure, on the other hand, depends upon how much gas the planet has managed to hold on to.

Which means it could be anything, choose whatever you want. Terra and Venus are about the same size and mass, but the atmospheric pressure on Venus is about 90 times that of Terra.

Click here for an interactive gas retention plot. Despite its lesser dimensions, Cleopatra has quite a terrestroid atmosphere. In fact, the sea level pressures on the two planets are almost identical. It is thought that this is due to the hot, dense mass of the planet outgassing more than Earth did, early hi their respective histories, and to the fact that, ever since, the strong magnetic field has helped keep too many molecules from getting kicked away into space by solar and cosmic ray particles.

Air pressure drops with altitude more slowly than on Earth, because of the lower gravity. On Earth, at about 5. Not only does that moderate surface conditions, it extends life zones higher, and offers more possibilities to flyers both living and mechanical. One clear-cut, if indirect, influence of tides on weather is through the spin of the planet. The more rapidly it rotates, the stronger the cyclone-breeding Coriolis forces. In the case of Cleopatra, we have not only this factor, but also the more powerful irradiaton�and, maybe, the greater distance upward from surface to stratosphere, together with the lesser separation of poles and tropics�to generate more violent and changeable weather than is common on Earth.

Insofar as the matter is understood by contemporary geophysicists, we can predict that Cleopatra, having a hotter molten core and a greater rate of rotation, possesses a respectable magnetic field, quite likely stronger than the terrestrial.

This will have helped preserve its atmosphere, in spite of the higher temperatures and lower gravity. Solar particles, which might otherwise have kicked gas molecules into space, have generally been warded off. To be sure, some get through to the uppermost thin layers of air, creating secondary cosmic rays, electrical disturbances, and showy auroras.

The ecliptic is the plane that the orbits of the solar system's planet mostly lies in. For purposes of planetary climate, the important point is that the sun's rays that hit a planet travel more or less parallel to the ecliptic. The bottom line is that the axial tilt creates the planet's seasons. The angle that the sunlight hits the ground affects the concentration of heat.

It is hottest when it hits the ground perpendicular to the ground plane. Axial tilt also controls how many hours of daylight and night time there are per day at various parts of the year.

During the winter the days are short and the nights are long, the reverse is true in summer. At the equinoxes equal-night the hours of daylight and night time are equal. Terra has an axial tilt of There having been less tidal friction acting on it through most of its existence, Cleopatra spins faster than Earth: once in 17 hr 21 m Its year therefore lasts of its own days, give or take a little bit because of trepidation, precession, etc.

However, the climate of high latitudes is not necessarily more extreme on that account. Certainly winters are less cold. It is the difference in the length of seasons�a fourth again as much�which'is most important. Likewise, the seasonal variation of day and night lengths is more marked than on Earth, and the Arctic and Antarctic come nearer to the equator.

The stronger sun, which supplies more energy; the longer year, which gives more time to overcome thermal lag; 'the smaller size, which brings zones closer together; the larger axial tilt, which exaggerates the differences between them; the quicker spin, which generates more potent cyclonic forces; the lower pressures but the longer distance up to a stratosphere, which make for more extensive air masses moving at a given time under given conditions � all these create "livelier" weather than on Earth.

Storms are more common and violent, though they tend to be short-lived. Huge thunderstorms in the river valley, twisters on the plains, hurricanes in the tropics, and blizzards near the poles are things which colonists must expect; they have to build stoutly and maintain an alert, meteorological service.

But this seeming drawback has its good side. With such variability, both droughts and deluges are rare; chilly fogs don't linger; inversion layers break up before they accumulate unpleasant gases; daytime cloud patterns can be gorgeous to watch, while nights are brilliantly clear more often than not, in most areas of the planet.

The weather is likewise affected by axial tilt. Earth does not ride upright in its orbit; no member of the Solar System does.

From this we get our seasons, with everything that that implies. We cannot tell how often Earthlike worlds elsewhere have radically diiferent orientations.

My guess is that this is a rarity and that, if anything, Earth may lean a bit more rakishly than most. Whatever value the writer chooses, let him ponder how it will determine the course of the year, the size and character of climatic zones, the development of life and civilizations.

If Earth did travel upright, thus having no seasons, we would probably never see migratory birds across the sky. One suspects there would be no clear cycle of the birth and death of vegetation either. Then what form would agriculture have taken? All planets have latitude and longitude to measure geographic positions. Latitude measures distance from the planet's equator. There are special latitudes linked to planetary temperatures, and other special latitudes linked to planetary winds and precipitation.

These are important because those are the two factors that determine a region's climate and biome. Terra's arctic zone extends from latitude The antarctic zone is from latitude The planet's tropics are at a latitude equal to the axial tilt, north and south.

Terra's tropic zone extend from These named latitudes help figure out the average temperature of various regions of the planet.

Naturally the arctic and antarctic zone are where it is colder than average, and if the planet has any ice caps they will be here. This is also the area where you'll find the " land of the midnight sun " and " polar night ". And of course the tropic zone is where the planet tends to be warmer than average. The temperate zone tends to be right at the average. The trouble is that while we have an equation for the average planetary temperature , we do not have one for colder than average and hotter than average.

Until I find something better, the best thing I can think of is to look at Terra. Temperatures on Terra vary from This means the temperatures are plus or minus 40 degrees from the average. Though the amount of axial tilt is probably a factor. The precise latitude of, say, the Tropic of Cancer varies from planet to planet, depending upon the axial tilt.

It controls the temperature of the region. In a later section you will learn about the temperature latitudes like the Doldrums and the Horse Latitudes. These are always at the same latitude from planet to planet e. The greater the tilt, the more seasonal variation in temperature the planet will experience. The planet would be all temperate zone, with no tropic zones nor arctic zones.

The antarctic would the same as the arctic except in the south. Things like planetary climates and continental erosion depend upon yearly differences in regional temperature, the zero tilt planet has no yearly differences in temperature. It does have temperature difference between regions, the poles are going to get incredibly cold and the equator is going to fry.

The arctic and tropic zone overlap, and the "temperate zone" is the overlap region. Both the arctic and tropic zone cover the entire globe. There are times in the year when half of the entire planet has eternal daylight and the other have has eternal night. The glaciers form on the equator instead of the poles. Seasonal temperatures will be so extreme that human beings would probably have to do mass migration during the year to stay in the part of the planet that had survivable temperatures.

Keep in mind that a lot of the temperate zone rely upon melting snow for much of its water. If the axial tilt is too small, there will be less seasonal variation in temperature, leading to less snow melting in summer, leading to widespread deserts in the temperate zone.

On the other hand, too much axial tilt means more seasonal temperature variation, leading to less snow fall, also leading to widespread deserts in the temperate zone. In addition to controlling the seasons, axial tilt also changes the distribution of surface heat on your planet. The larger the tilt, the more the heat is evenly spread. For predicting the average temperature, I am toying with calculating insolation as a function of date and latitude.

The link gives access to a spreadsheet for this, it is based on these equations. They give the energy density of sunlight at the top of the atmosphere given a latitude and a date, and the planet's inclination. So the average temperature will appear as a series of horizontal bands by lattitude. Unlike Temperature Latitudes, the Wind Latitudes are fixed.

They are the same for all planets. However, they are not straight lines, they wiggle like a snake with diarrhea from hour to hour.

This means over the year their boundaries are fuzzy and broad, but centered on their "official" latitude. Annual precipitation is partially controlled by the wind latitudes.

It is also controlled by oceans, mountains, and other geographical features. Precipitation is important because it is one of the two factors that determine a region's climate. In practice, the different spectral distribution and the atmosphere and hydrosphere, modify things considerably. Cleopatra is warmer, and lacks polar icecaps. But thenj this was true of Earth throughout most of its existence. Even at the equator, some regions are balmy rather than hot, while the latitudes comfortable to man reach further north and south than on present-day Earth, People simply avoid the furnace-like deserts found here and there.

They also take precautions against the higher level of ultraviolet light, especially in the tropics. Again, this poses no severe problem. One can safely sunbathe in the temperate zones, and do so well into the polar regions in summer. Usually there is no undue glare of light; the more extensive atmosphere vide infra helps in scattering and softening illumination.

Winter nights are usually ornamented by fantastically bright and beautiful auroras, down to lower latitudes than is the case on Earth�in spite of Qeopatra's strong magnetic field. To be sure, solar-atmospheric interference with radio and the like can get pretty bad, especially at a peak of the sunspot cycle for Caesar, about 14 Earth-years long, as opposed to Sol's But once installed, laser transceivers aren't bothered.

Continents are ruled by plate tectonics and continental drift. For terrestrial planets, they are more likely to have plate tectonics if they are more massive than Terra.

Terra may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water since silica and water form a deep eutectic. Having said that, some researchers claim to have detected plate tectonic activity on Mars, Europa, and Titan.

The jury is still out on the question of super-earths , though. The basic idea is that the surface of a planet the lithosphere is composed of a series of huge rigid "plates" that are floating on the more fluid asthenosphere.

The oceans cover the plates, and the continents are just the bits of the plate that are higher than sea level. The plates slide around on the asthenosphere, scraping and colliding with other plates. This form volcanoes, mountains, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches.

It is also the cause of continental drift. Plates are covered with two types of topping: oceanic crust and continental crust. The edges of a given plate covered in oceanic crust are the oceanic edges, the other edges are continental edges. There are three kinds of plate boundaries :. The type of plate boundary can evolve over time. Consider two plates Alfa and Bravo.

Both are continental in the center but oceanic on the rim. Say they start to collide and become convergent boundaries. Earth Primer for iOS 7. It is a great primer, and fun as well. It is software for the interactive visualization of plate-tectonics.

Small Skiffs For Sale Quotes Yokohama Sightseeing Cruise 5g