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23 Model Ships - Restoration Project ideas | model ships, model boats, tall ships

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Hatfull A. Howay A. Day A. Searl A. Peterson B. Brown Jr. Foss C. Read C. Tunnel-catamaran Catapult Caudron Caudron C. Bryant D. Newell D. Rowe D. Mathews D. Macvean D. III D. Golding D. VII D. VIII D. German DWG. Rock E. Helliwell E. Riding E. Rubber FF. Day G. Forster G. Thomas H. Ferfusson J. Bowmer J. Keil Kraft Keil Kraft model. Ellis L. He was removed and Humphreys finalized the plans and made a model of the ship to be presented to Washington and another, half-size, to draw templates and molds.

Particular care was given to the wood choices for the hull, white pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, and southern live oak, the strongest of all. This was compounded by the very close sections of the ships and wood combinations, making projectiles bounce on the hull instead of piercing it. The genius of the design also was to include Diagonal riders for the first time. This was a deep design, long on keel and narrow of beam to reach 14 knots, and fitted with heavy pdr guns, plus carronades on the spar deck for a total of 50 guns.

Their career was long and exceptional. They preyed on shipping, with a crew motivated mostly by the prize, as well and even more their captain, often young. Bold aggressiveness and seamanship made Frigates a well appreciated school for young officers, before joining larger ships of the line. So there was some rivalry between these young officers to obtain command of such ships. Fast, well armed, free to roam the seas at will, they sometimes bring these officers a tremendous wealth, in addition to fame and recognition by other officers ad the admiralty, the perfect jump to a large 1st or 2nd rate man-o-war by age In one occasion, two British captains battled and captured two Spanish vessels, loaded with gold and silver.

The prize was so enormous it represented years of wages for both officers in one lucky swoop. However all Frigate captains were not so fortunate. Greed pushed also some to attack much larger ships as corsairs and privateers do, and lost. USS Constitution vs Guerriere. Tactics-wise, these lone Frigates used all manoeuvres in the book to secure victory.

Ships pounded themselves at 50 meters 54 yards , then either manoeuvre to present the other broadside or close in even further to board the enemy ship, with swords, pistols and hand grenades, while musketeers often sniped from the fighting tops or marine troops volley-fired from the deck.

Balls flew freely for the entire length of the deck, creating mayhem in the process. This was often seen as the coup de grace for a ship already crippled. There were at least four gunnery options at that time: -The classic shot: Solid balls which penetrated wooden walls, spraying large quantities of wood splinters in the process, injuring the crew.

They were designed to set fire to the enemy ship. With some luck, one could hit a powder bag, or better, roll into the gunpowder magazine. On these wooden vessels with large quantities of explosives, tar and sails this meant hell in a short while.

Of course this was mostly a radical tactic, without regard to the capture of the ship. However, when committed as 5th-rate warships alongside the battle-line they were used mostly as dispatch vessels amidst the smoke of war, behind friendly lines, or salvaging sailors of sunken ships, preventing the enemy to escape, or spotting a possible reinforcement.

Their influence started with the construction and invention of the Schooners, veterans of the war when they were pitted against the strongest navy on the globe. They were quickly overshadowed by the much larger Frigates of the Constitution class as seen above.

This was the t. Seringatapam She was followed by many others under the same name but not necessarily at Blackwall until the Superb and Melbourne by the same Green yard but with an iron hull. None were armed despite the name, but they were decorated with fake ports lines in intimidate possibly bad encounters on their way to India.

They disappeared, condemned by the sheer speed of the Clippers. The hul shape was not only influential on the first whalers, but clippers as well and unfortunately� slave ships. Many were used for war, with a light artillery on their open deck. In the Royal Navy , there were ten sailing ships of the line in the effective list, about 25 not on the effective list, including four in steam conversion, but also 28 screw frigates and, for what we are concerned, 5 sailing frigates in the effective list and 49 not in the effective list.

In the Russian Navy Nine screw frigates were in service or in completion in , seven paddle frigates, and five sailing frigates. The type was retired for good in or converted like the Castor. Russian Frigate Pallada. Japan was force-opened in Commodore Perry and the new Meiji government was keen on modernizing the fleet by swapping directly to the steam screw type Frigate; They were hardly-pressed during the Boshin war.

The best known sailing frigate of the time was the US-built Fujiyama Austria-Hungary had only three 50 guns screw frigates and a single ship of the line, the Kaiser. Prussia had two sailing frigates Gefion and Thetis , but was building the five Arcona class screw frigates from Italy, on the verge of unity had 9 frigates screw including four in construction and three sailing only at the eve of the Battle of Lissa.

Turkey had a still significant battle fleet in , despite crippling losses at Navarino and at Sinope in , showing the extremely efficient Paixhans guns at work, the Turkish Ottoman authorities tried to revitalize and modernize the fleet, around 20 sailing Frigates were in service, including four screw frigates.

Sweden has about 11 sailing frigates, Denmark has two 42 guns screw frigates, and about 25 sailing ones including those of the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy.

The Dutch Fleet had three screw frigates two more in completion , and around seven sailing frigates 32 and 52 guns in Portugal had two recent screw frigates and two sailing ones , all modest. Spain , which quickly converted frigates to ironclads, had three screw frigates two more in construction three paddle frigates.

Five more screw frigates will be built in the s. Imperial China had virtually no modern frigates, only the paddle frigate Chiangtzu was refused and resold to the Daimyo of Satsuma, and two screw Frigates were built in Brazil in had just one single sailing frigate, just as Peru.

Stern view of the Danish steam Frigate Jylland , now preserved at Ebeltoft. About the Razee These particular ships emerged after the Royal Navy had to deal with the American guns Frigates during the war.

Being outmanoeuvred, outgunned, this went as far as the interdiction of one-on-one duels between British and American Frigates. USS Cumberland after conversion as a razee in � The conversion made her a more stable, faster platform. In practice, this created a lower, more agile vessel, more capable of engaging frigates on their own. Yet by their two complete artillery decks with heavy guns they outmatched the American firepower, and retained the very thick walls of the original ship of the line, making them impervious to the super-frigates fire.

These Razeed ships in fact were much older than the war of The French revolutionary government in turn started to convert ships of its own, seven ships in all started in Of course they were all obsolete when the new generation of super-frigates of guns started to appear.

With their heavier broadside and reinforced protection they renewed the park of warships. Here is a work in progress which will be completed over time, with Frigates still in existence today which can be visited , or past Frigates that were a landmark in naval history.

A gun Frigate replica made , she is still a familiar sight in tall ships yearly events. She is a good example of an early frigate, influenced by English and Dutch shipbuilding schools. She is now based in St Petersburg. She belongs now to the Maritime Museum of San Diego.

Hemmemaa with latin rig They were tailored to replaced classic sailing frigates which draught was impossible for Baltic shoals. It gave an edge to the Swedish fleet during the Second Northern war. Meawnhile the Russians launched dozens of Galleys.

The Battle of Hoglund, battle of Svenska Sund were massive clashes pitting both types of ships. French Frigate built in Rochefort she was replicated in and made a tour of the USA, as the ship which originally carried Marquis de Lafayette to the Gen.

Georges Washington, bringing the news that the French army was coming. And a great appreciation of the ordinary things of life: bread and butter, a bit of jam on your toast in the mornings, a glass of beer when you're thirsty. And the value of human relations. You know, when it comes to the end, the only thing that really matters are the people whom you love and who love you.

Since the inception of the Commonwealth of Australia and its armed services, Australians have fallen into the hands of the enemy in an astonishing variety of places. The first Australian servicemen to become prisoners of war were captured in South Africa during the Boer War of � In the Second World War large numbers of Australian servicemen and women were made prisoners of war. Many were captured in the campaigns of and in North Africa, Greece and Crete, fighting against the Germans and Italians.

Flying on operations, mainly from Britain, significant numbers of Royal Australian Air Force RAAF aircrew were forced to bail out over enemy territory and spend the rest of the war in prison camps in Germany. However, it is the story of the thousands of Australian prisoners of the Japanese that has made the deepest and most lasting impression on the average Australian.

The suffering and death of Australians between and , in dozens of prison camps and enforced labour locations in Asia, is often seen as the archetypal experience of Australian prisoners of war in this century. Fortunately, in the conflicts in which Australia has been involved since , few servicemen have fallen into enemy hands. However, during the Korean War �53 a small number of Australian prisoners of war experienced treatment at the hands of the Chinese and North Koreans which was, at times, equal to the conditions endured by their compatriots in Japanese camps in the Second World War.

Since , approximately 35, Australians have faced the challenges of captivity in war. As prisoners they faced isolation, hunger, sickness, brutality and death. Through it all these men and women showed courage, ingenuity, fortitude and a deep compassion for each other's suffering.

Theirs is a story now firmly accepted as an inspiring part of the legacy of Australians at war. Soltau was a real League of Nations. I think every nation which was at war with Germany was represented there � Russians, French, Belgian, Italian, Serbians, Rumanians, and just about every regiment in the British Army They [the Russians] were dying at the rate of five or six a day.

During my stay there, they used to carry the bodies out in a box, tip it into a hole, and then go back for the next one. Of these, about nine per cent died in captivity. The conditions under which they were held varied considerably. By late , conditions for civilians in Germany were deteriorating rapidly as the Allied sea blockade began to bite. At this time of shortage, Australian and British prisoners of war were comparatively lucky. Right up to the end of hostilities they continued to have access to Red Cross food parcels and they were comparatively better nourished than the German population around them.

In general, the treatment of Australian prisoners of the Germans in the First World War was not severe. However, aspects of their captivity, and that of other Allied prisoners, caused some concern. In an attempt to show that Allied claims of close cooperation between their multinational forces were a sham, the Germans placed men of different nationalities in the same camps, with no allowance made for differences between cultural groups.

At times, prisoners of war were used for the purpose of war production. Don Fraser, 13th Battalion AIF, was put to work at the Kieselgour Works, near Melbeck, to mine and dry a light clay substance that he subsequently learnt was used as a binding element in the manufacture of nitroglycerine. At other times, Australians were held in camps in dangerous proximity to the front line, where they were vulnerable to shelling.

The Germans alleged that this was in retaliation for similar treatment of German prisoners by the British. Half of them were light horsemen captured during British Imperial operations in Sinai and Palestine between and A third were taken on Gallipoli, and the rest came from the Australian Flying Corps and the crew of the submarine AE2 which had made the passage of the Dardanelles in before it was disabled and its crew captured.

By comparison with their compatriots in German captivity, those Australians who were imprisoned in Turkey did not fare so well. They suffered forced marches, long railway journeys in crowded trucks, poor food, disease and inadequate medical supplies. Other ranks were set to building a railway in the Taurus Mountains. Hard manual labour can be fatal for malnourished men and 25 per cent of those Australians who worked on the railway died.

Officers were not made to work and only one Australian officer died as a prisoner of war in Turkey. Four Australian prisoners of war and their dog relax outside their tent, Langeloths, Turkey, c AWM H I shall never forget my experience as a POW, even if I live to be a hundred. One of the greatest experiences was mateship. You had a good mate, you helped one another, shared everything together, and this comradeship still exists today though a lot of your mates have since passed on.

You will never forget your mates � one of the things that helped pull one through. In and , during the Middle East and Mediterranean campaigns, Australians fell into enemy hands. The greatest number of these � � became prisoners of the German invaders of Greece and Crete in April and May The Germans and Italians took Australians prisoner in North Africa � in the retreat towards Tobruk, Libya, in early , during the Siege of Tobruk April to December and the remainder mainly in operations in Egypt and Libya in A last message from the battalion commander read simply, 'We have got to give in'.

However, it was during the disastrous fighting in Greece and Crete in April and May that the largest number of Australians fell into enemy hands in any one operation in the Mediterranean. Virtually every unit of the 6th Division lost men in Greece and Crete.

From these three infantry battalions alone came virtually 20 per cent of all Second AIF soldiers taken prisoner by the Germans and Italians. Another group of Australians who faced the constant danger of death or capture were aircrew of the RAAF.

It has been estimated that of every 12 RAAF The Second World War men lost over enemy territory eight were killed, one evaded capture and three became prisoners of war. Altogether Australian airmen became prisoners of war in Europe, most being taken prisoner after they had bailed out of a stricken aircraft of Bomber Command over occupied Europe or Germany.

As the war progressed, Allied airmen who bailed out over Germany after an 'area bombing' operation on an enemy target faced a particular hazard � death at the hands of local civilians before they could be taken into custody by military authorities.

In the Ruhr area of Germany especially, it is known that Allied airmen, Australians among them, were at times beaten, stoned and even killed by infuriated mobs whipped up by enemy propaganda aimed at the so-called 'terror-fliers'. Before their arrival in more permanent camps in Germany and Italy, prisoners from the Middle East, Greece and Crete faced periods in primitive holding camps and long journeys by rail or sea in overcrowded conditions.

Among the worst transit camps, both run by the Germans, were Feldpost , near Tripoli, and the Salonika camp in northern Greece. By the end of July , the Salonika camp held over 12, Allied prisoners in antiquated and dilapidated military barracks. Many men were forced to sleep outside with no blankets. Rations were inadequate, beatings and kickings were commonplace, and dysentery and malaria were rife.

From Salonika, men faced a long journey to Germany in often appalling conditions. Our bedraggled mob was marched to the station and given a small round loaf of bread and a tin of pork per man, for what we were told would be a five-day journey. We were crammed into cattle trucks, thirty-five to forty-five men per truck, and the doors were barred and sealed with barbed wire, as were the small ventilator slots.

The doors were not opened for the first day and as many men were still suffering from diarrhoea they just had to use any receptacle available. The heat and stench inside the trucks was incredible.

Some did not survive the journey to the prison camp. In August , the Italians evacuated over Allied prisoners of war, including Australians, from Benghazi, Libya, in the cramped holds of the freighter Nino Bixio. On its second day out, bound for Italy, the freighter was torpedoed. Campo 57, Italy, where by October over Australians and New Zealanders were interned as prisoners of war. AWM P Eventually most of those taken prisoner in North Africa found themselves in camps in Italy, among which the most notorious was Campo 57 at Gruppignano, near the Yugoslavian border.

A sign over his office door revealed the attitude of the camp commandant, Colonel Vittorio Calcaterra:. Not all Italian camps, however, were like Campo Of the commandant of Campo Prato, near Bolzano in northern Italy, one man wrote:. He used to let us go for walks two or three miles from the camp and we always got our Red Cross parcels and fags.

In September the Italians signed an armistice with the Allies. However, owing to a previous British instruction that all prisoners of war stay in their camps to await liberation, the Germans and their Italian sympathisers were able to evacuate over 25, Allied prisoners to Germany and Austria.

On one train trip north to Germany, men escaped, among whom were 13 Australians. Two of them were a father and son combination from Toowoomba, Queensland � the Sharps. They jumped from the train at Le Viss, near Trento, and spent seven days walking over the Alps to freedom in Switzerland.

By the end of , virtually all Australians taken prisoner in Greece and Crete were being held in 24 camps in Germany, Austria and Poland. Officers were placed in Oflags Offizierlager � an officers' camp and non-commissioned officers NCOs and other ranks in Stalags Mannschaft-Stammlager � a camp for men other than officers. Conditions in the camps varied but were in general survivable.

The sleeping quarters at Moosburg consisted of large dormitories with beds in tiers of three. Palliasses stuffed with wood-wool and two blankets formed the bedding. Food provided by the Germans ran to a cup of ersatz coffee for breakfast; cabbage, potato soup and a thick slice of bread or sometimes sauerkraut and two potatoes in their skins, for lunch; and for tea, carrot or potato soup and cabbage.

Rations were supplemented by Red Cross parcels and, when on work detail outside the camp, men were able to acquire cash from German civilians for Red Cross items such as cigarettes and tea. In this way an escape fund was built up and a number of prisoners managed to get away from outside work camps and reach nearby Switzerland. In general, camp life was boring and routine.

To relieve the monotony the men kept themselves occupied in a number of ways. At Stalag , Hohenfels, near Regensburg, which by the end of contained Australian NCOs, theatre productions were a lavish and regular feature.

A camp orchestra provided the music, and 'usherettes', 'dressed in neat little skirts and pill-box hats', collected thousands of cigarettes which paid for the production.

At the extreme of the Australian experience of German captivity was the time spent by some Australian servicemen in concentration camps. As the Allied armies advanced towards Paris in , the Germans removed to Germany the inmates of Fresnes prison, most of whom were being held by the German secret police � the Gestapo.

Among the men, women and children from Fresnes were Allied airmen who had initially evaded capture. When apprehended in civilian clothing they were not regarded as prisoners of war but instead flung into Fresnes.

Among this group were nine men from the RAAF. After their arrival in Germany they were taken to a camp whose name has become a byword for brutality and horror � Buchenwald. At Buchenwald the prisoners of war were treated with the same savagery as all the other inmates and set to tasks which indicated the fate that awaited them.

Pilot Officer Bob Mills from Salisbury, South Australia, was forced to collect the dead for delivery to the crematorium:. It's a sight I can never, ever forget. Just days before they were due to be executed in a most barbaric manner, the airmen were removed from Buchenwald and sent to a regular prisoner of war camp. Fortunately for them, word had reached the highest levels of the Luftwaffe German Air Force that they were being held in a concentration camp and successful representations were made for their removal.

During their time in German camps there were only two ways to freedom for the Australian prisoners � escape or repatriation through prisoner exchange. In all, men of the AIF who were maimed, medically unfit or of protected status were exchanged for a similar number of enemy prisoners and protected personnel.

Those of protected status were mostly medical personnel or soldiers specially trained as auxiliary nurses and stretcher bearers, who, if taken prisoner, were entitled to repatriation under the Geneva Convention.

However, it is the many escape attempts which have dominated Australian understanding of Australian prisoners of war in Europe. Altogether Australians are estimated to have made an escape from a German or Italian prison camp between and Typical of an individual escape story is that of Corporal John Parker. At Munich, an engineer worked on the wheels within a couple of metres of Parker's hiding place but he remained undetected and reached St Margrethen over the Swiss border after a 12 hour journey, sometimes at high speeds, in his cramped position.

There are many examples of escapes like Parker's, escapes which led men into a huge variety of experiences � fighting with partisans in Yugoslavia and Greece, with the Maquis in France, or, simply, after passing through well organised escape routes helped by local civilians, crossing the English Channel to rejoin the war.

Of all the escape stories, undoubtedly one of the best known, and most tragic, is that of the breakout from Stalag Luft III, Sagan, a camp for airmen.

Between March and March over escape tunnels were dug by the prisoners of war in Sagan, who were described by their German captors as 'these active and mobile men who do not want to do anything except escape'! In a grand escape plan envisaged the breakout of over prisoners through a set of three tunnels known as Tom, Dick and Harry. Tom was discovered and Dick was thereafter used as a storage tunnel. On the night of 24�25 March , 80 men successfully crawled to freedom through Harry.

Four were quickly recaptured and 76 headed off in a number of different directions attempting to reach a neutral country. Private Lawrence Saywell second from left with a New Zealander and two Russians, with whom he escaped from a prison camp in Bohemia in They were sheltered by villagers and in return helped partisans with sabotage operations.

Saywell was shot by a German patrol on VE day, 8 May He was the last Australian killed in Europe. Hitler was enraged by this mass escape. He demanded that more than 50 per cent of all those recaptured should be shot despite their protected prisoner of war status. This socalled 'Sagan order' was duly carried out and 50 men were taken in small numbers from local prisons and shot along deserted highways.

Their ashes were returned to Sagan with the advice that they had all been killed 'while attempting to escape'. One of them, unable to walk on his frostbitten feet, was carried out to his death by his executioners. At Sagan a special memorial was created to the memory of the dead escapers. On it, beneath an RAF eagle, was the inscription: 'In memory of the officers who gave their lives'. In early many of the Australians faced their final ordeal in captivity.

As the German army was driven back all along its Eastern and Western fronts Allied forces began to get close to the prisoner of war camps. There now began a series of forced marches from the camps back into the heart of Germany. One prisoner recalls their condition after two days of this:.

Many are crippled by blisters and are unable to march any further, while others suffer from cramps, torn tendons and muscles. By March , hundreds of thousands of prisoners of war were on the march all over Germany and Austria as the Allies closed in. With the collapse of Germany, the Australians found themselves liberated in a thousand different ways and few will forget that moment.

An American Lieutenant came into the camp on May 6 in a Jeep We were back across the Elbe that night and I was back with my English bride on her birthday, 13 May Of those Australian servicemen taken prisoner by the Germans and Italians, died in captivity.

Of the remainder, were returned in prisoner exchanges during hostilities, and the rest were evacuated to England, mainly by plane, soon after liberation. After proper rest, recuperation and leave, the ex-prisoners, except for a few who took their discharge in the United Kingdom, headed home.

On 30 August, a final small draft of AIF ex-prisoners of war left, so completing the repatriation of those who, in their own minds, had spent too much of their war service as 'guests of the enemy'.

At the end of the war I interviewed every Australian and English soldier in my camp; I was the only medical officer in the camp. And I thought it was my duty to record their disabilities. And you'd say to them, what diseases have you had as a prisoner of war. Oh, nothing much Doc, nothing much at all. Did you have malaria? Oh yes, I had malaria. Did you have dysentery? Oh yes, I had dysentery. Did you have beriberi? Yes, I had beriberi.

Did you have pellagra? Yes, I had pellagra; but nothing very much. All these are lethal diseases. But that was the norm, you see, everyone had them. Therefore they accepted them as normal. On 8 December the Japanese invaded the British colony of Malaya and for the next seven weeks fought their way down the Malayan peninsula.

During the Malayan campaign, the 8th Division, which constituted just 14 per cent of the British Empire's ground forces in Malaya, sustained 73 per cent of that force's battle deaths.

By 31 January , the Japanese had pushed the British back into the supposedly impregnable island fortress of Singapore. At The British capitulation at Singapore on 15 February was a catastrophe. Many thousands of British Empire servicemen fell into enemy hands, of whom 14, were Australians, almost all men of the 8th Division.

These were not the only Australians to become prisoners of the Japanese in early Approximately Australian servicemen and women became prisoners of war. Surrender on 23 February sent another Australians into Japanese captivity. AWM They did not have long to wait for the Japanese. On the night of 28 February� 1 March, Allied naval units encountered an enemy invasion force, headed for western Java.

The remaining men were taken prisoner. On 12 March, Java fell and a further Australians became prisoners of war. Altogether, between the fall of Rabaul in late January and the collapse of Java in mid- March , the Japanese had taken over 22, Australian prisoners of war in addition to many thousands more British, Indian and Dutch servicemen and women.

Within days, sometimes hours, of becoming prisoners, many Australians faced death at the hands of their captors. Undoubtedly, many others met a similar fate in the field before the large number of prisoners were concentrated into more permanent camps. Of all the massacres of prisoners in those early days of , none is better remembered in Australia than the fate of some of the survivors of the SS Vyner Brooke.

The Vyner Brooke left Singapore on 12 February, three days before the surrender, carrying among others 60 members of the Australian Army Nursing Service. Two of the nurses were killed and another nine, who drifted away on a raft, were never seen again. One group of 22 of the remaining nurses, along with other survivors, landed on the island and on 16 February gave themselves up to the Japanese.

They were made to wade into the water. Sister Vivian Bullwinkel recalled what happened next:. We were sitting down, and we were ordered up, and then told to march into the sea. Which we did.

As we got to about waist level they started machine gunning from behind. I was hit at the side of the back. The bullet came through, but I wasn't aware of it at the time. I thought that once you were shot you'd had it.

What with the force of the bullet and the waves I was knocked over into the water. And in so doing I swallowed a lot of water. I became violently ill and. I realised I was very much alive. When I did venture to sit up there was nothing.

All my colleagues had been swept away, and there were no Japs on the beach. Of the three, only Sister Mavis Hannah centre survived the war, as a prisoner of war in Sumatra. Matron Irene Drummond right was killed in the massacre of nurses on Banka Island on 15 February and Sister Dora Gardam left died on 4 April as a prisoner of war. Along with 31 other Australian nurses she endured imprisonment at Palembang on Sumatra and at Muntok on Banka Island until August During their last months of captivity, eight nurses died from disease, malnutrition and overwork.

For three and a half years from January to August thousands of Australians suffered a regime which involved brutality, privation and, all too often, death at the hands of the Japanese.

In Japan and Borneo, in the jungles of eastern Thailand, and in dozens of other places across east and south-east Asia, Australians, and many thousands of Allied prisoners of war and forced labourers, were put to work for the enemy in conditions where ill-treatment, bad food and disease were commonplace.

Over , European civilians were interned by the Japanese when their armies swept over Asia. Approximately of these civilians were Australians. These businesspeople, planters, administrators and missionaries, in many instances along with their families, were overrun by the swift Japanese advance.

Between and war's end they were held in camps all over Asia where, like the military prisoners, they often endured harsh conditions. Captive children suffered particularly from deficiency diseases and were often traumatised by witnessing acts of brutality. Women were humiliated, sometimes sexually, and some were compelled to become prostitutes for the Japanese military.

No short account can do justice to the suffering and fortitude shown by Australian prisoners of the Japanese. However, two incidents � the building of the Burma� Thailand railway in and the Sandakan death marches in � carry the essence of the story of what, at its worst, it was like to be a prisoner of the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second World War.

By mid the Japanese had a large army in Burma. To keep it supplied involved a long and exposed sea voyage up the Malayan and Burmese coasts from Singapore to Rangoon. To shorten this supply line, it was decided to build a railway through wild jungle country across the Burma�Thailand border to link the Burmese town of Thanbyuzayat with the Thailand railway system at Bampong � a distance of kilometres.

The Japanese decided to build the railway from both the Thailand and Burmese ends simultaneously, and for this purpose in September they began assembling a labour force which would be made up eventually of approximately 62, Allied prisoners of war, including Australians, and , conscripted Asian labourers.

By 17 October the railway was operational but along the line lay the graves of thousands of prisoners of war and Asian labourers who had been worked to death in its construction. Of the prisoners of war, over 10, died, of whom were Australians � nearly 30 per cent of all Australian captives who had been sent to Burma and Thailand.

Countless thousands of Asian labourers also perished. This appalling death toll can be simply explained � the Japanese expected men to undertake hard physical labour in tropical conditions with inadequate equipment.

The prisoners of war were in a constantly undernourished condition, and with non-existent medical supplies. Many men, weakened by starvation, succumbed to an array of diseases � cholera, beriberi, malaria and pellagra.

An unfortunate number were simply beaten to death for their insubordination or inability to work any more. In the mid- s some of the survivors of the railway told their stories to Hank Nelson for his book, Prisoners of War: Australians Under Nippon Sydney, More than anything else, the direct testimony of those who were there reveals the full horror, tragedy and pathos of this dark episode in Australian history:.

In one of the worst speedos [a 'hurry-up' work period] we started at 5 o'clock in the morning and got home at 11 at night, and we got home at one o'clock the next morning, and one o'clock the morning after that. Then you just go on and on for days without a let-up You went, and then you flopped on your bunk at night. It was like a scene out of Dante's inferno. The Japs decided we would work twenty-four hours a day, two shifts, one was the day shift and one was the night If you stood on the top of the cutting you would see the burning fires at intervals of about twenty feet; you'd see the shadows of the Japanese with their Foreign Legion caps moving around with their sticks belting men.

There was shouting and bellowing. And this went on all night. So when we got there, if the beriberi was excessive, you might have to lie some of them on their backs with their feet against the side of the embankment to keep the fluid flowing down through their legs into their bodies so that their legs wouldn't burst. They couldn't work at all. We'd feed them at lunch time. They were looked after, hats placed over their faces to keep the rain out, and they were talked to and joked to.

They understood the position. We would carry them back at night. Usually one would die during the day. A north-bound train passing over a trestle bridge on the Burma-Thailand railway. During construction, the bridge fell down three times, 31 men were killed in falls and 29 men were beaten to death. Initially the dead were given proper burials beside the railway with a bugler playing the Last Post. Later, with the risk of disease and constant demands for work, the dead were cremated quickly.

Their ashes were preserved in bamboo tubes, and after the war the remains of Australians were buried at Kanchanaburi in Thailand and at Thanbyuzayat in Burma.

Among the prisoners, one group saved untold lives and worked tirelessly for them � the doctors. They improvised medical treatments from any suitable material, and drew on their knowledge of the pharmacological properties of local jungle plants. He had few medicines and his medical equipment was little better than had been available to the surgeons of the First Fleet to sail to Australia in At Kilo 55, the Dutch chemist, Captain C van Boxtel, managed to produce pain-killing spinal injections from cocaine tablets.

Alf Mitchell recalls Coates, assisted by van Boxtel, operating at Kilo At the end of the hut you could see the Colonel operating.

With the help of the Dutchman van Boxtel they had made a drug and they used it to stick in the back of your spine. The orderlies held your head and bent your back right over and stuck it in, which would paralyse you from the chest down.

You could go there and watch Colonel would cut right around the flesh and he'd grip the arteries and that to stop the blood from flying out On many occasions the doctors saved lives by refusing to allow sick men to be worked. This, not surprisingly, caused at times intense conflict between the prisoners' medical protectors and the Japanese guards intent on bringing work details up to the required strength.

One doctor who suffered a severe beating at the hands of the guards was Major Bruce Hunt who, at Tarsu in Thailand, tried to prevent 37 sick men from being taken. In front of those he was trying to protect, Hunt was beaten virtually insensible and had a metacarpal bone fractured by three guards wielding bamboo canes.

The prisoners themselves reserved many of their most heartfelt tributes for the doctors. And when at the end of our night's trip we collapsed and slept he was there to clean blisters, set broken bones and render first-aid. From among the doctors one man has passed into legend � Sir Edward 'Weary' Dunlop � whose statue stands today in the grounds of the Australian War Memorial.

Perhaps of all the images of the building of the Burma�Thailand railway none is more illustrative of the tragedy of the situation, and the courage and compassion of doctors like 'Weary' Dunlop, than a scene described by survivor Ray Parkin.

At Hintok camp the sick would be inspected by the Japanese to see if they could be sent to work. Dunlop told really sick men to sit on a log � the 'wailing log' � and under no circumstances to respond to a guard's bellowed instruction to stand up. Parkin describes Dunlop's reaction:. Weary would go and pick up a man in his arms like a baby, bring him over to Nippon, and say, 'This man, Nippon?

Even the most hardened Japanese found it difficult to accept a man proffered in Dunlop's arms as fit to labour on the railway. In January , in the Sandakan prisoner of war camp in British North Borneo, there were approximately prisoners, Australian and British. In late January, fearing imminent Allied invasion, the Japanese force-marched of the prisoners kilometres inland across rough jungle and mountain terrain to a small village called Ranau.

Few men were fit as they embarked on this march; virtually all were suffering from malaria, beriberi and malnutrition. An estimated 60 per cent had no boots. By March, those remaining at Sandakan were in a pitiful condition. The withholding of food and medical supplies produced what the Australian official historian called 'walking skeletons' � men weighing between 40 and 45 kilograms. On 29 May, the Japanese began destroying the camp. Many of the prisoners of wars were severe hospital cases, yet despite this, the Japanese ordered another of the emaciated men to set out on the track to Ranau, a situation which was presented to them as a 'very short journey'.

As all the barracks at the camp had now been destroyed, for those sick prisoners of war left behind there was no accommodation and they lay out in the open. As the second march moved through the jungle, men were beaten with rifle butts. Only grams of rice, little more than a handful, was allowed per man per day and even this meagre ration was eventually reduced. The track itself was extremely rough and men urged themselves forward through, at times, knee-deep mud.

As the country became steeper, the prisoners had to crawl up the hills and allow themselves to slide down the other side. It soon became clear that those who dropped out and fell behind were being shot by the guards. Don Wall, in his account of the marches, Sandakan � the Last March, writes:.

It was not uncommon to see a PW sitting on a log or a stone on the side of the road and as his fellow PWs passed he would give them messages to pass on to another friend in the leading column of the march. Many of these men went to their deaths shouting curses and insults at the Japs and telling them to 'let me have it'. On 26 June , approximately of those who set out on this second march reached Ranau alive. Two men had escaped from the march and, with the help of local people, were rescued by Allied forces.

At Ranau, the marchers found just six survivors of those who had set out on the first march in January. The rest were dead. At Ranau the survivors lived in unbelievably harsh conditions. The rice ration was reduced to 70 grams a day and working parties of sick and dying men were forced to build huts and carry food supplies. More men died and the survivors were barely strong enough to lift the dead into shallow graves.

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