Bougas Wayne. In: Archipel , volume 73, The earliest European reports of gold in Sulawesi are Portuguese. The Portuguese initially paid little attention to the island, until in sailors, who had unexpectedly put in there, reported the presence of gold Pelras, In Antonio de Paiva, a Portugese trader in sandalwood, who was based in Malacca, also visited the Makasar kingdom of Siang. He was struck by the numerous golden bracelets that the noble women there wore on their arms and subsequently sent one as a gift to the king of Portugal Pelras, ; Archipel 73, Paris, , pp.
The Portuguese had initially thought that this gold came from the small coastal kingdoms which they had visited and were somewhat dismayed to learn that the source of the gold in South Sulawesi was instead the mountainous interior known today as the Toraja highlands and also possibly the area known today as Gorontalo in North Sulawesi.
In this paper I will take an in-depth look at the gold objects that were produced or imported into South Sulawesi during the late pre-Islamic period, the types of things the Portuguese like Paiva may have seen when they first visited the island during the 16th century. A detailed description of the gold objects themselves � death masks, eye and mouth covers, a wide assortment of jewelry bracelets, earrings, and rings , and small pieces of gold foil which were sometimes placed in the mouth of the dead � follows.
The paper concludes with a discussion of the insights the gold provides into the historical development of South Sulawesi during the year period from AD to AD.
Historical Background. Those peoples, who later evolved into the Makasar, settled along the southern end of the peninsula along the coast and the nearby mountainous interior. The Toraja settled in the northern mountainous interior and the Mandar occupied the Wayne A.
Thick forests and heavy tropical rainfall, however, prevented early penetration of the interior. The working of metals � bronze, iron, and gold � was introduced into Sulawesi as well as the rest of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Philippines around years ago. Neither of these objects was, however, produced in Sulawesi.
The Makasar axe was manufactured elsewhere in Indonesia and is thought to date to the first millennium AD. There is ample evidence however that bronze was also actually produced locally during the first millennium � two bronze dogs with geometric decorations as well as some smaller axes found near Makassar were most likely manufactured in Sulawesi Bulbeck, What these items seem to imply is that metals not only the working of bronze but of iron and of gold as well may have first found their way into South Sulawesi in the 1st millennium during the early surge of maritime trading activities centered on the spice trade in the eastern islands.
Iron was the most commonly worked metal during the first millennium AD. Bulbeck, Gold may have been mined from alluvial deposits along the Karama River in Sulawesi as early as the 8th century AD Bulbeck, This gold dates to the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD.
Gold finds are extremely limited in this early period and substantial amounts of gold only begin to appear beginning circa AD and thereafter in association with the introduction of east � west burials. Historians such as MacKnight , Bulbeck , and Caldwel believe that this period of east � west burial from approximately AD until AD was a time of profound change for the peoples � Makasar, Bugis, and highland Toraja � of South Sulawesi.
They postulate that this period witnessed the introduction of kingship, the formation of sizable kingdoms except for the Toraja highlands, and an ever-increasing stratification of society. Prior to this period the paucity of early ceramic ware and other trade items including gold , they argue, suggests that complex political organizations had not yet been established in South Sulawesi.
The chronicle relating the foundation of the Bugis kingdom of Soppeng, for example, reveals, that Soppng originally consisted of 60 such chiefdoms Pelras, More complex chiefdoms, or polities, with multiple centers began to emerge across South Sulawesi only after AD.
The emergence of these complex chiefdoms and kingdoms was linked to the expansion and intensification of wet rice farming MacKnight, Bugis and Makasar patturioloang chronicles suggest that most of this agricultural expansion was directed by the ruling families of emerging kingdoms. Bulbeck further believes that the Makasar coastal plain was also linked at this time to the southern Philippines and Borneo through a second trading network that focused on the Sama-Bajau sea peoples.
Bulbeck thinks that the Sama-Bajau may have established themselves along the south coast of South Sulawesi as early as the 14th century AD Bulbeck, Many historians have focused their attention on the epic struggle between the two for hegemony in South Sulawesi.
Both sought outside support to bolster their positions. In Goa, for example, converted to Islam and proceeded to spread the faith throughout the peninsula by force, thus bringing the pre-Islamic period to an end. The Bugis on the other hand allied with the Dutch, who were eager to use their services in breaking the monopoly that the Makasar had previously established over the eastern island spice trade.
The Provenance of the Gold. Nearly all of the ancient gold and iron items found in South Sulawesi were associated with burial sites. This section therefore reviews pre-Islamic, Makasar mortuary practices and the types of graves goods associated with them.
It also briefly describes the looting and legitimate archaeological excavations that have brought much of the gold to light. The section concludes with an examination of gold finds outside the Makasar coastal plain, first in South Sulawesi, next in Bali and Java, and then in the Philippines and in Kalimantan Borneo in order to provide a wider context within which to view Makasar pieces.
Archipel 73, Paris, Map 1. Ethnic groups and kingdoms in South Sulawesi mentioned in the text. Mortuary Practices. Early Metal Phase circa 0 AD AD burial practices among the Makasar originally involved exposure of the corpse, until it was de-fleshed, followed Chase Sailing Boat King Abandoned Night by a secondary disposal of the bones, often buried in rock shelters Bulbeck, No gold was found in association with these early burials.
Again no gold was found in association with these jar burials. Cremated remains in jars have, for example, been discovered at Talaborong in Goa and have been radio-carbon dated by cremated bone to between AD to AD Bulbeck, Cremated remains have been discovered in both earthen and ceramic jars. Increased grave goods were associated with these cremations, although on a limited scale. Gold for the first time now begins to appear Chase Sailing Boat King Abandoned Use on a regular basis as a component of grave goods.
Burnt bone was also found, as previously mentioned, in an inverted, Heger 1A type, bronze kettle drum at Bonto Ramba in Goa along with a considerable number of beads and gold jewelry. The Makasar, living along the coast, eventually abandoned cremation as well as the secondary disposal of bones and began to bury their dead from approximately AD AD. The dead were buried along an approximate east-west axis with the head positioned towards the east and the feet to the west. Several of these coffins have been found in caves in Loa in.
Kebupaten Bulumkumba Busthanul, The Portuguese trader, Paiva, who visited Siang in and again in , described burial practices among the Makasar during the late pre-Islamic period as follows:. Their houses are very high up on great wooden supports. And they raise this body thus in this elaborate wooden coffin and keep it there for the time span I have said.
They took a bamboo pole so long that it could reach the ground, hollow in the centre, and they put one end in the coffin and the other below in the ground. May your Lordship believe that the bodies spoken of give off from themselves no harmful smell of putrefication, but rather the flesh of the body is siphoned off through the bamboo in such a way the only the bones and nothing else remain At the end of this time they place three large supports like horizontal masts in such a way that the coffin can come down to the ground, where it is put on a large wagon in which it goes to the place where, together also with the wealth which it carries, they place it under the ground.
And when they put it down by means of those masts underneath, they will cover it with a grand cow head, according to the grandeur of the coffin, with horns of gold, all carved, and then cover it in many silks accompanied by a great drumming. The type and amount of grave goods increased dramatically during the period of east-west burial. A bowl was sometimes placed behind the head as a pillow, while a larger plate might be placed face down over the head of the corpse. Small vessels or containers were sometimes used to produce a necklace around the neck.
Larger plates were also traditionally placed over the chest and pelvic areas. The most common items were bracelets and earrings. Iron items, notably weapons rusted keris,. The types and amount of gold found in graves also greatly increased during this period. Numerous eye and mouth covers, made from hammered gold foil, have also been discovered in graves on a regular basis.
The types of gold jewelry found in graves include: necklaces, bracelets, possibly ankle bands, rings, and earrings. Grave robbers also report that small pieces of crumpled gold foil were sometimes placed in the mouth of the dead. With conversion to Islam the custom of burying the dead in association with grave goods was eventually abandoned.
Looting of early Islamic graves indicates, however, that some graves still contained goods and this suggests that it may have taken some time before this practice was completely eliminated. Looting and Excavations. Almost all the gold described in this paper was either looted or excavated from east-west, primary burials, which were located in areas originally Gold Looted and Excavated AD AD This region Ref.
Gervaise reports the looting of pre-Islamic Makasar graves as early as Gervaise, New laws, seeking to discourage looting, were also enacted and more strictly enforced.
The looters paid little attention, however, to the other items found in the graves. Bronze bracelets and corroded iron weapons were, for example, discarded on site. Thinly hammered gold eye and mouth covers were also initially thrown away. Larger gold items such as bracelets, necklaces, and rings were sold on a weight per gram basis to Chinese goldsmiths in the provincial capital, Makassar. The Chinese goldsmiths subsequently melted down the ancient gold and recycled it as new jewelry.
In time many looters, however, came to realize that there was a market for ancient gold, particularly pieces of Javanese origin. The looters subsequently began selling these items to antique dealers in Makassar, who then resold many of the most precious objects to dealers in Jakarta or abroad.
Other Gold Finds. The Makasar were not the only people in South Sulawesi to use gold in their funeral rites. Gold also seems to have played an important role in pre-Islamic Bugis society and may have been used in their pre-Islamic death rites. The description of the rites Wayne A. Christian Pelras, personal communication. Historical sources also suggest that the contemporary practice of using gold in funeral rites among the Toraja may be very old. They interestingly point out, however, that the Toraja themselves may not have initially have forged gold.
The Makasar are, however, unique among the peoples in South Sulawesi in that only they seem to have employed golden death masks and gold foil eye and mouth covers in their funerary rites. The detailed descriptions of funerals in the La Galigo do not, for example, mention such objects. Looting in Bugis and Toraja areas has also not to date turned up such items.
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