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The human factor. The management world has a name for human problems of communication and management that cause projects to founder and fail�Vasa syndrome. The events of August 10, had such a big impact that the sinking is a case study business experts still read about. At the same time, the beautiful ornamentation contributed to its heaviness and instability, they write.
According to the museum, it is the only preserved 17th-century ship in the world, and the museum is a place for historical and anthropological study as well as for visitors from around the globe. Continue or Give a Gift.
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Human Behavior. Our Planet. Earth Optimism Summit. Pillars or posts set angularly in the hull to stiffen it; although used in pairs, they differed from cross pillars in that each brace occupied only one side of the hull.
Diagonal framing. Frames or riders placed diagonally over the regular frames or ceiling to provide additional stiffening to a hull. Diagonal scarf [Diagonal butt] Fig. An angular junction of two planks or timbers. Diminishing strakes Fig. Belts of outer planking above and below the wales that were successively reduced in thickness, providing a more gradual transition from the protrusion of the wales to the thickness of the side planking. A vessel whose bow and stern have approximately the same horizontal shape, such as rounded, pointed, or square ends.
Double framing Fig. A general term signifying frames composed of two rows of overlapping futtocks. Dowel [Dowel pin] Fig. A cylindrical piece of wood of constant diameter used to align two members by being sunk into each. A cylindrical coak. Unlike treenails and pegs, dowels served an alignment function only, additional fastenings being necessary to prevent separation of the joint.
Draft marks [Draught marks, Load lines]. Figures or lines cut into, or attached to, the stem and sternpost to indicate the depth at which each end of the hull is immersed. Drawknife Fig. A knife with two handles mounted at right angles to the blade; drawknives are used for shaping and beveling. The difference between the diameters of a bored hole and the bolt that is driven into it.
Drift bolt. A cylindrical bolt, headed on one end, that is slightly larger in diameter than the hole into which it is driven. Drop strake Fig. A strake of planking that is discontinued near the bow or stern because of decreasing hull surface area.
A central stealer. Brushwood, scrapwood, or other loose material laid in the hold to protect the cargo from water damage or prevent it from shifting, or to protect the ceiling from abrasion. Ekeing [Lengthening piece] Fig. A timber used to lengthen another timber, such as the extension of a deck hook or knee. Eye bolt Fig. A bolt with a circular opening at one end. A name sometimes given to the hawse holes or the areas around them; on ancient ships, ocular decorations at the same locations.
Fair curve [Fair line]. A shape or line whose curvature agrees with the mold loft or that is mechanically acceptable and seaworthy. False keel [Shoe] Figs. G-3 , G-4a , G-4b , and G A plank, timber, or timbers attached to the bottom of the keel to protect it in the event of grounding or hauling; on large ships, false keels were sometimes made quite thick in order to increase the size and strength of the keel.
In North America from the eighteenth century onward, and perhaps in other areas, false keels were called shoes. An outer timber fixed to the forward surface of the stem to strengthen or protect it, or to provide better symmetry to the cutwater. Also, a name sometimes given to the apron in English documents. False sternpost. A member attached to the after surface of the sternpost to reinforce or protect it.
Fashion piece [Fashion timber] Fig. A timber that framed the shape of the stern. Figure piece Gd. A name sometimes given to the upper piece of the knee of the head, upon which the figurehead rested. Filling frame Fig. A frame composed of a single row of timbers, usually scarfed together, that filled the space between the main, or double-rowed, frames of a large ship. Filling piece [Filler] Fig.
A single timber or block used to fill out an area, such as the side of a gunport where it did not coincide with a frame, or in the spaces between frames to maintain rigidity. Fine lines. A descriptive term applied to a vessel with a sharp entrance and a narrow hull.
An English term for the modern Norwegian word describing the fishtail-shaped mast partners on Viking vessels. Fish plate Fig. A metal plate used to join two timbers externally. Flat scarf Fig. The union of two planks or timbers whose diagonal ends were nibbed cut off perpendicular to their lengths. When planking is scarfed vertically, the ends are not nibbed. Floor ribband [Floor ribbon]. The floor rising line; specifically, a ribband or batten fastened to the outside of the frames at the heads of the floor timbers; used for fairing and to determine the shapes and lengths of intermediate frames.
Floor timber Fig. A frame timber that crossed the keel and spanned the bottom; the central piece of a compound frame. Flush deck. A deck running continuously from bow to stern, without breaks or raised elements. Foot wale [Footwaleing] Fig. Thick longitudinal strakes of ceiling located at or near the floor head line or turn of the bilge. Some eighteenth-century English documents called the thick strakes next to the limber strake, or sometimes all of the ceiling, footwaleing , in which case the heavy strakes near the turn of the bilge were known as thick stuff.
Variously, a short, raised foredeck, the forward part of the upper deck between the foremast and the stem, or the quarters below the foredeck. A curved piece between the forward end of the keel and the knee of the head; the gripe.
In some documents describing large ships, it is the name given to the rounded forward portion of the gripe, inserted as a separate piece. Forelock bolt Fig. An iron bolt with a head on one end and a narrow slot at the other; secured by placing a washer over its protruding end and driving a flat wedge, called a forelock , into the slot. Forelock bolts were one of the most popular of shipbuilding fastenings, being commonly used to secure major timbers from Roman times until the nineteenth century.
Frame Fig. A transverse timber, or line or assembly of timbers, that described the body shape of a vessel and to which the planking and ceiling were fastened. Frames were sometimes called timbers or, erroneously, ribs see Rib.
Ancient ships often had frames composed of lines of unconnected timbers; later ships usually had compound frames composed of floor timbers , futtocks , and top timbers. Square frames were those set perpendicular to the keel; in the bow and stern there were cant frames , running obliquely to the keel.
Forward of the cant frames and fayed to them, in large round-bowed vessels, were the frames running parallel to the keel and stem, sometimes called knuckle timbers ; more accurately, these were the hawse pieces and knight heads , the latter being the frames adjacent to the apron or stem-son that extended above the deck to form bitts and support the bowsprit.
The aftermost frames were the fashion pieces , which shaped the stern. Frame details are illustrated in Figs. G-3 , G-5 , G , G , and G Futtock Fig. A frame timber other than a floor timber, half-frame, or top timber; one of the middle pieces of a frame. Futtock plank. In English shipbuilding, the first ceiling plank next to the limber strake. A seagoing vessel propelled primarily by oars, but usually one that also could be sailed when necessary.
Gammoning hole [Gammoning slot] Fig. An opening in the knee of the head through which the bowsprit gammoning lashing passed. Gammoning knee. Gammon piece Fig. The part of the knee of the head containing the gammoning hole. G-4 and G The strake of planking next to the keel; the lowest plank. Also, the lowest side strake of a flat-bottomed hull. Girdling [Girding]. The practice of adding timber to the sides of ships to increase their breadth and thereby improve stability.
The practice was most common on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century British vessels and was employed to overcome design flaws due to inability to calculate metacentric height. A latticework hatch cover used for light and ventilation. Also, a term applied to the latticework deck in the heads of large ships. Graving [Breaming]. The vessel was careened or drydocked to perform this task. Graving iron Fig.
A hook-like tool used for removing old caulking. Graving piece Fig. A wooden patch, or insert, let into a damaged or rotted plank. Gripe Fig. A curved piece joining the forward end of the keel to the lower end of the knee of the head. Generally, the same as forefoot. Gudgeon Fig. A metal bracket attached to the sternpost into which a rudder pintle was hung; the female part of a rudder hinge. Gundeck Fig.
The deck where the guns were located; large ships had as many as three gundecks a three-decker , called the lower, middle, and upper gundecks. Gunport framing. The sills , lintles , and filling pieces that shape and reinforce the gunports. Gunwale [Gunnel] Fig. In sixteenth-century vessels, the wale against which the guns rest.
Half beam Figs. G-7c and G-7d. A beam extending from the side to a hatch or other obstruction. See also Beam arm. A frame whose heel began at or near one side of the keel or deadwood and spanned part or all of that side of the hull; half-frames normally were used in pairs. Hanging knee Fig. A vertical angular timber used to reinforce the junction of a beam and the side. Harpins [Harpings].
The forward planks of wales that were strengthened by increased thickness near the stem; usually found on large, round-bowed vessels. Also, a term applied to specially shaped battens fitted to the cant frames or other areas of extreme curvature during construction; used to check and adjust frame bevels. Hatch [Hatchway] Fig. Hatch beam Fig. A removable beam that supported the hatch cover and provided lateral strength when the hatch was not in use.
Hawse bolster. One of the heavy planks fixed around or below the hawse holes to protect the hull planking. A cylindrical hole in the bow through which the anchor cable passed. Hawse piece [Hawse timber] Figs. A fore-and-aft framing timber whose heel was fayed to the forwardmost cant frame and which reinforced the bow of a large, round-bowed vessel; hawse pieces were so named because the hawse holes were partially cut through them.
The tube through which the anchor cable passed between the hawse hole and windlass or capstan deck. In a general sense, the forward part of a vessel; the extreme bow area; also, a name sometimes given to the figurehead or, on later vessels, to the latrine. See also Timber head. Head knee. Sometimes a designation for cheek knee cheek , but more frequently an alternate term for knee of the head.
Head ledge Fig. An athwartships hatch coaming. Headrails Fig. Curved rails extending from the bow to the knee of the head. The junction of the keel and sternpost; also, an angular timber connecting the keel to the sternpost. Separate heel timbers on cogs and cog-like vessels are most frequently called hooks. Heel knee [Stern knee]. An angular timber reinforcing the junction between the keel and the sternpost. Helm port [Rudder hole] Figs. Ga and Gc. The opening in the stern where the rudder stock entered the hull.
Helm port transom Figs. The timber reinforcing the helm port. Hogging truss [Hogging frame]. A strong fore-and-aft framework built into a vessel to prevent hogging; hogging trusses were most commonly seen in canal boats and other long inland vessels.
In ancient vessels, it was a strong cable supported by forked posts and attached to the ends of the Wooden Ship Building And The Interpretation Of Shipwrecks Video hull to serve the same purpose. Hold Fig. In a general sense, the interior of a hull. Hooding ends [Hoods, Hood ends]. The ends of planks that fit into the stem and sternpost rabbets; hooding ends were sometimes reduced in thickness to permit a better join with the posts. A knee-like timber that connected the keel or central plank to the stem or sternpost.
A northern European designation, it is used almost exclusively in reference to cogs and cog-like vessels. In later English documents, bow hooks were called gripes ; stern hooks were called heels. Hook and butt Fig. A method of planking whereby one edge of the plank was straight while its opposite side had sloping edges locked by a hook.
Infrequently, the term was also used to denote a hook scarf. Hook bolt Fig. A bolt with a hook-shaped head used for securing detachable lines, tackle, and other gear. Hook scarf Fig. The union of two planks or timbers whose angular ends are offset to lock the joint. Hook scarfs are sometimes locked with wedges, or keys.
Horning [To horn]. A process by which frames were aligned to assure that they were level and exactly perpendicular to the keel. See Horning pole for a description of the process.
Horning pole [Horning board, Horning line]. A batten, pole, or line used to align frames; one end was mounted over the keel centerline, or atop the stem or sternpost, while the other end was marked and swung across each frame head to ensure that each side of the frame was equidistant from, and perpendicular to, the keel centerline.
G-3 and G-9l. A U-shaped iron plate fastened across the seam of the stem and forefoot to strengthen it. A cable or assembly of cables installed in ancient galleys to overcome hogging. Inner stempost. The inner timber or timbers of a double-layered stem; unlike an apron, an inner stempost ends at the keel-stem scarf.
Inner sternpost Fig. A vertical timber attached to the forward surface of the sternpost to increase its strength, and in some cases, to support the transoms. Intermediate timbers. Those individual timbers installed between the sequential frames for additional localized strength. They could span part of the bottom, turn of the bilge, or side. The term applies primarily to ancient ships and inshore craft, where they reinforced the areas around beams, mast steps, bilge sumps, etc.
See Plate knee. Jeer bitts Fig. Upright posts used for staying the various courses or halyards. Notches cut into the surface or edge of a timber, as in the exterior frame surfaces of clinker-built hulls or in the edges of some ancient Egyptian hull planks. The main longitudinal timber of most hulls, upon which the frames, deadwoods, and ends of the hull were mounted; the backbone of the hull.
Keel plank [Central plank, Kingplank]. A central hull plank that was substantially thicker than the rest of the bottom planking and whose breadth was at least twice as great as its thickness; a thick bottom plank used in lieu of a keel. Keelson [Kelson] Figs. G-3 , G-4a , and G-4b. An internal longitudinal timber or line of timbers, mounted atop the frames along the centerline of the keel, that provided additional longitudinal strength to the bottom of the hull; an internal keel.
Most commonly, a single keelson was installed that was no larger than the keel. On very large vessels, however, various combinations of as many as a dozen keelsons were assembled. Where extra molding was required, one or more additional keelsons, called rider keelsons or false keelsons , were bolted to the top of the main Wooden Ship Building And The Interpretation Of Shipwrecks Model keelson. They could be of identical size to, or smaller than, the main keelson. Auxiliary keelsons bolted alongside the main keelson were known as sister U.
However, care should be exercised in interpreting the various keelsons from contracts. For instance, some nineteenth-century American contracts for large schooners refer to the keelson above the main keelson as the sister, and the one above that as the assistant sister keelson.
On occasion, large square timbers were placed at the floor head line or near the bilge, usually above the bilge keels. These were called bilge keelsons or, in some British document, sister keelsons. Secondary keelsons did not necessarily run the full length of the hull, terminating at the ends of the hold, the last square frames, or some other appropriate location.
Figure G-4 illustrates some typical arrangements. Keel staple [Keel clamp] Figs. G-3 and G-4a. A large metal staple used to attach the false keel to the keel. Kevel head. The extension of a frame or top timber above the bulwarks to form a bitt, to which ropes were secured. Kingplank [Central strake, Kingstrake]. Variously, the central strake of a flush deck or the central strake of a hull without a keel. Knee [Knee timber] Figs. An angular piece of timber used to reinforce the junction of two surfaces of different planes; usually made from the crotch of a tree where two large branches intersected, or where a branch or root joined the trunk.
See also Dagger knee , Hanging knee , Lodging knee , and Standing knee. Knee of the head [Head knee] Fig. A knee or knee-shaped structure, fixed to the forward surface of the stem, that formed the cutwater at its lower end and supported the headrails and figurehead at its upper end. Knightheads Figs. The forwardmost frame timbers, which ran parallel to the stem, their heels being fayed to the forwardmost cant p. Also, a name given to a pair of bitts, located just aft of the foremast on merchant ships, that supported the ends of the windlass, or to any bitt whose upper end was carved in the shape of a human head.
Knuckle timbers Fig. A name sometimes applied to the fore and aft frames in the bow of a roundbowed ship. The hawse pieces and knightheads. Ledge Figs. G-7a and G-7b. A short beam set between and parallel to the deck beams to provide intermediate support of the deck; the ends of ledges were supported by carlings , clamps , or lodging knees. A large plate, or assembly of timbers, mounted on the side of a hull and lowered when sailing off the wind to increase lateral resistance and reduce leeway.
Level lines. Another name for the waterlines on hull plans; they described the horizontal sections of the hull. Light [Light port]. Limber boards Fig. Ceiling planks next to the keelson which could be removed to clean the limbers; on some ancient vessels, limber boards were laid transversely above the centerline of the keel.
Holes or slots were sometimes cut into limber boards so that they could be lifted more easily. Limber holes [Watercourses] Figs. Apertures cut in the bottom surfaces of frames over, or on either side of, the keel to allow water to drain into the pump well.
Limber ledges. Rabbeted timbers running parallel to the keel and atop the floor timbers for the purpose of supporting transverse ceiling planks. Watercourses or channels alongside or central to the keel or keelson, through which water could drain into the pump well. Limber strake Fig. The lowest permanent ceiling strake, fastened to the tops of the frames next to the limber boards and keelson. Lines [Hull lines]. Frames: a an example of double framing�a square frame of an early-nineteenth-century merchant ship; b two additional commonly used frame timber joints; c room and space of a popular framing plan; d some vessels were framed with a pair of overlapping floor timbers having arms of unequal length, resulting in an even number of timbers in each frame; e lower side view of the framing plan of a large warship, where a pair of single frames called filling frames were set between double frames; futtocks, marked F, are shown by number; in such an arrangement, the room and space included the filling frames; and f bevels and chamfers.
Lining Fig. The common ceiling of the orlop, berthing, and gun decks of ships, set between the spirketting and the clamps. The lining was frequently called quickwork , a term more commonly used in British documents. The upper horizontal timber framing a gunport, large square light, or gallery door. Load line. In some cases the term load line denoted full-load draft. See Draft marks. Locked pintle. A pintle that was flanged or keyed in order to prevent the rudder from accidentally unshipping.
Lodging knee [Lodge knee] Figs. A horizontal, angular timber used to reinforce two perpendicular beams or the junction of a beam and the side of the hull. Another term for the stock of a quarter rudder. Also, the stock, or pole piece, of an oar or sweep. A term used frequently to describe the caulking of lapstrake clinker-built hulls. In most cases, animal hair, wool, or moss was soaked in pitch or resin and laid in a luting cove , which was cut in the lower inside surface of the overlapping plank.
Luting generally refers to caulking inserted between two hull members before they were assembled, as opposed to driven caulking see Caulk. The term is also applied to any plastic material used between two adjacent members. In shipbuilding, the adjective applied to the most important timbers, or those having the greatest cross-sectional area; thus, on ancient vessels the main wale was usually the lowest and largest, while on later warships it was the one below the gunports; also, main breadth, main hatch, main hold, main keelson, etc.
Main frame. A term sometimes applied to frames composed of two rows of futtocks to distinguish them from filling frames, the single-rowed frames placed between them; it applies to larger vessels of the last few centuries.
The term was also used infrequently to denote the midship frame. Main piece Fig. The longest and largest timber in the knee of the head. Also, a term sometimes applied to the main vertical timber, or stock, of a rudder Fig. Mallet Fig. A large hammer with a short handle and a cylindrical wooden head, sometimes hooped with iron to prevent it from splitting, used for caulking caulking mallet and general shipwrightery.
The heaviest mallets were also called beetles. A small compartment, located just inside the hawse hole, whose after bulkhead called a manger board diverted water entering the hawse hole into the limbers.
Mast carlings Fig. Fore-and-aft beams that helped support a mast where it pierced a deck; also called mast partners. See Partners. Bow construction: a top view of port frames; b deck hook; c breast hook and hawse hole; and d one of many arrangements used for assembling the knee of the head. See Partners and Mast carlings. Mast step Figs. A mortise cut into the top of a keelson or large floor timber, or a mortised wooden block or assembly of blocks mounted on the floor timbers or keelson, into which the tenoned heel of a mast was seated.
Various types of mast steps are shown in Figure G Maul Fig. A heavy wood or iron hammer, primarily used to drive large bolts. Stern construction: a stern framing of an eighteenth-century brig; b partial side view of the same stern near the post; c partial top view of the same stern; d lower stern framing of a galleon; e alternate stern details; and f one form of skeg installation on a small sloop.
A thick plank separating the bottom, or lower ship , of a Viking hull from its sides. Either rectangular or L-shaped in cross-section, p. The intersection of a vertical line drawn through the center of gravity of a vessel when it is stable with a vertical line drawn through its center of buoyancy when the vessel is heeled.
Midship [Midships]. A contraction of amidships and consequently, in a general sense, it refers to the middle of the ship. In construction, however, it is often used as an adjective referring to the broadest part of the hull, wherever it may be. Midship beam Fig. The longest beam in a vessel, located at or near the midship bend. Midship bend Fig. The broadest part of the hull; the widest body shape, formed by the centerline of the midship frame.
Midship flat [Midship body, Midsection, Midship section]. The extent of the broadest part of the hull, formed by the midship frame and all adjacent frames of the same breadth. Midship frame Fig. The broadest frame in the hull; the frame representing the midship shape on the body plan.
Arrangements likely to be encountered on shipwrecks: a crutches brace the foremast step on the Revolutionary War privateer Defence ; b a mainmast step of the type used on very large eighteenth-century warships; c one of a variety of methods for stepping a mizzenmast; d bowsprits of smaller vessels were sometimes stepped above deck in a broad sampson post as illustrated, or between pairs of riding bitts just below deck; e the bowsprit of a large eighteenth-century warship; and f an athwartships view of the forward surface of the same step, showing its two-piece construction.
Two bend molds and a hollow mold are fitted together to form a compound mold or half of a square frame. Individual molds, probably representing futtocks of frame M, are numbered in Roman numerals. Redrawn from old notebook sketches. Mold [Mould] Fig. A pattern used to determine the shapes of frames and other compass timbers. Molds were usually made from thin, flexible pieces of wood. Convex molds were called bend molds , concave molds were p.
The degree of bevel and other pertinent information was written on the molds. The process of shaping outer frame surfaces with molds was known as beveling. Figure G illustrates several types of molds. See also Whole molding. Molded [Molded dimension]. The various dimensions of timbers as seen from the sheer and body views of construction plans; the dimensions determined by the molds.
Rather, the third part of the book discusses work done on previous projects and suggests additional methods that might prove helpful to readers in their own endeavors. The book contains an illustrated glossary, specifically designed for archaeological use. There is also a select bibliography, annotated where titles do not indicate content and arranged in historical groups to provide sources for most areas of research. About the Author J. Since then, he has been involved in numerous shipwreck excavation projects in Europe, Asia, and North America.
His most recent research has been directed toward ancient and early medieval craft. He was awarded a MacArthur Foundation fellowship in in recognition of his contributions to the field. He was the Sara W. Reviews ". Teeming with photographs and diagrams, Steffy's book details exactly how ancient vessels were built with much more skill and sophistication than was previously thought and how archaeologists and ship enthusiasts have deduced their information.
Steffy's enthusiasm is infectious, as is his admiration for the shipbuilders of the past and the researchers of today.
Highly recommended. This unassuming man's utterances about the archaeology of boats and all that entails demand attention, since he is one of those very rare persons who has applied a considerable practical talent and intellect to the understanding and reconstruction of ancient wrecks for over thirty years.
There is nothing quite like teaching for creating order out of the knowledge gained elsewhere.
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Class 10th Geography Chapter 5 Ncert Solutions English Sailing Boat 5 Letters Essay Boat Excursion Krnica 02 |
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