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The early Austronesian peoples considered the sea as the basic feature of their life. Boats of different sizes and shapes have been found in every Austronesian culture, from Madagascar, Maritime Southeast Asia, to Polynesia, and have different names. In Southeast Asia, head-hunting was restricted to the highlands as a result of warfare. Mummification is only found among the highland Austronesian Filipinos , and in some Indonesian groups in Celebes and Borneo.
Sea-going catamaran and outrigger ship technologies were the most important innovations of the Austronesian peoples. They were the first humans with vessels capable of crossing vast distances of water, which enabled them to colonize the Indo-Pacific in prehistoric times.
Early researchers like Heine-Geldern and Hornell once believed that catamarans evolved from outrigger canoes, but modern authors specializing in Austronesian cultures like Doran and Mahdi now believe it to be the opposite. Two canoes bound together developed directly from minimal raft technologies of two logs tied together.
Over time, the double-hulled canoe form developed into the asymmetric double canoe, where one hull is smaller than the other. Eventually the smaller hull became the prototype outrigger , giving way to the single outrigger canoe, then to the reversible single outrigger canoe. Finally, the single outrigger types developed into the double outrigger canoe or trimarans. This would also explain why older Austronesian populations in Island Southeast Asia tend to favor double outrigger canoes, as it keeps the boats stable when tacking.
But they still have small regions where catamarans and single-outrigger canoes are still used. In contrast, more distant outlying descendant populations in Micronesia , Polynesia , Madagascar , and the Comoros retained the double-hull and the single outrigger canoe types, but the technology for double outriggers never reached them although it exists in western Melanesia.
To deal with the problem of the instability of the boat when the outrigger faces leeward when tacking, they instead developed the shunting technique in sailing, in conjunction with reversible [note 5] single-outriggers.
The simplest form of all ancestral Austronesian boats had five parts. The bottom part consists of a single piece of hollowed-out log. At the sides were two planks, and two horseshoe-shaped wood pieces formed the prow and stern. These were fitted tightly together edge-to-edge with dowels inserted into holes in between, and then lashed to each other with ropes made from rattan or fibre wrapped around protruding lugs on the planks. This characteristic and ancient Austronesian boat-building practice is known as the " lashed-lug " technique.
They were commonly caulked with pastes made from various plants as well as tapa bark and fibres which would expand when wet, further tightening joints and making the hull watertight. They formed the shell of the boat, which was then reinforced by horizontal ribs.
Shipwrecks of Austronesian ships can be identified from this construction, as well as the absence of metal nails. Austronesian ships traditionally had no central rudders but were instead steered using an oar on one side. The ancestral rig was the mastless triangular crab claw sail which had two booms that could be tilted to the wind. These were built in the double-canoe configuration or had a single outrigger on the windward side.
In Island Southeast Asia, these developed into double outriggers on each side that provided greater stability. The triangular crab claw sails also later developed into square or rectangular tanja sails , which like crab claw sails, had distinctive booms spanning the upper and lower edges.
Fixed masts also developed later in both Southeast Asia usually as bipod or tripod masts and Oceania. These sails allowed Austronesians to embark on long-distance voyaging. In some cases, however, they were one-way voyages. The failure of pandanus to establish populations in Rapa Nui and New Zealand is believed to have isolated their settlements from the rest of Polynesia.
The ancient Champa of Vietnam also uniquely developed basket-hulled boats whose hulls were composed of woven and resin - caulked bamboo, either entirely or in conjunction with plank strakes. The acquisition of the catamaran and outrigger technology by the non-Austronesian peoples in Sri Lanka and southern India is due to the result of very early Austronesian contact with the region, including the Maldives and the Laccadive Islands , estimated to have occurred around to BCE and onwards.
This may have possibly included limited colonization that have since been assimilated. This is still evident in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. Early contact with Arab ships in the Indian Ocean during Austronesian voyages is also believed to have resulted in the development of the triangular Arabic lateen sail.
Outside of Taiwan, assemblages of red-slipped pottery, plainware, and incised and stamped pottery associated with the Austronesian migrations are first documented Catamaran Building Materials 4th from around to BCE in the northern Philippines , from sites in the Batanes Islands and the Cagayan Valley of Northern Luzon. From there pottery technology rapidly spread to the east, south, and southwest. One branch of the migrations carried pottery to the Marianas Islands at around BCE, where the earliest archaeological sites have uncovered pottery very similar to those found in the Nagsabaran Site to BCE in Cagayan Valley in the Philippines.
This indicates that the northeastern coast of Luzon is the most likely point of origin of the first open-ocean colonizing voyages into the Pacific Islands. Philippine and Marianas red-slipped pottery are both decorated with rows of stamped circles, incised patterns, and tiny delicate punch-marks. While similar red-slipped pottery also exist in the Batanes Islands and Taiwan , they lack the characteristic circle and punctate-stamped decorations.
Other migrations, meanwhile, dispersed south and southwest to the rest of Island Southeast Asia. The eastward and the southward branches of the migrations converged in Island Melanesia resulting in what is now known as the Lapita culture centered around the Bismarck Archipelago. The Lapita culture made distinctive dentate-stamped pottery. It also retained elements also found in the Nagsabaran pottery in the Philippines, including stamped circles as well as the cross-in-circle motif.
Pottery technology in Tonga, however, became reduced to undecorated plainware within only two centuries before abruptly disappearing completely by around BCE. The reasons for this are still unknown. Pottery was absent in subsequent migrations to the rest of Remote Oceania , being replaced instead with carved wooden or bamboo containers, bottle gourds , and baskets.
A common practice among Austronesians in a large area of Island Southeast Asia is the use of burial jars which emerged during the Late Neolithic and flourished in the first millennium CE.
They are characteristic of a region bordered by the Philippines to the north, southern Sumatra in the southwest, and Sumba and the Maluku Islands in the southeast.
However, these didn't comprise a single tradition, but can be grouped into at least fourteen different traditions scattered across the islands.
In most cases, the earliest burial jars used were large indigenous earthenware jars, followed by indigenous or imported stoneware jars martaban , and finally imported porcelain jars acquired from the burgeoning maritime trade with China and Mainland Southeast Asia at around the 14th century CE.
All of them began to produce various tools and ornaments in indigenous jade workshops, including adzes , bracelets, beads, and rings. These typically depict two-headed animals or were ring-shaped with side projections. They were indicative of a very active ancient maritime trading region that imported and exported raw jade and finished jade ornaments known as the Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere.
They were produced during a period between BCE to as late as CE, although later examples were replaced with metal, wood, bone, clay, green mica , black nephrite , or shell materials, rather than green jade.
Polished and ground stone adzes, gouges , and other implements, some of which are made from jade-like stone, have also been recorded in areas of Island Melanesia and eastern New Guinea associated with the Lapita culture. These were considered valuable currency and were primarily used to trade for goods. It was dated to around 3, BP, but the origin of the jade material is unknown. Jade was absent in most of Remote Oceania , due to the lack of jade deposits.
These were produced from locally sourced pounamu greenstone and were used to produce taonga treasure. They include various tools and weapons like adzes, scrapers, fishing hooks, and mere , as well as ornaments like the hei-tiki and hei matau.
There are around six hundred to seven hundred rock art sites discovered in Southeast Asia and Island Melanesia , as well as over eight hundred megalithic sites.
The sites specifically associated with the Austronesian expansion contain examples of indigenous pictograms and petroglyphs. Dating rock art is difficult, but some of the sites subjected to direct dating pre-date Austronesian arrival, like the Lene Hara paintings of East Timor which has an age range of 6, to 26, BP.
Conversely, others are more recent and can be dated indirectly by their subjects. The depictions of pottery, ships, and metal objects, for example, put certain rock art sites at a range of 2, to 4, BP. Some hunter-gatherer groups have also continued to produce rock art well into the present period, as evidenced by their modern subjects.
The Megalithic Culture is mostly limited to western Island Southeast Asia, with the greatest concentration being western Indonesia. While most sites aren't dated, the age ranges of dating sites are between the 2nd to 16th century CE. They are divided into two phases. The first is an older megalithic tradition associated with the Neolithic Austronesian rectangular axe culture 2, to 1, BCE ; while the second is the 3rd or 4th century BCE megalithic tradition associated with the non-Austronesian Dong Son culture of Vietnam.
Prasetyo suggests that the megalithic traditions are not originally Austronesian, but rather innovations acquired through trade with India and China, but this has little to no evidence in the intervening regions in Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines. They consist of scenes and pictograms typically found in rock shelters and caves near coastal areas.
They are characteristically rendered in red ochre pigments for the earlier forms, later sometimes superseded by paintings done in black charcoal pigments. Their sites are mostly clustered in Eastern Indonesia and Island Melanesia , although a few examples can be found in the rest of Island Southeast Asia.
Their occurrence has a high correlation to Austronesian-speaking areas, further evidenced by the appearance of metal bronze artifacts in the paintings. They are mostly found near the coastlines. Their common motifs include hand stencils, "sun-ray" designs, boats, and active human figures with headdresses or weapons and other paraphernalia. They also feature geometric motifs similar to the motifs of the Austronesian Engraving Style. The representations of boats themselves are believed to be connected to the widespread "ship of the dead" Austronesian funerary practices.
The earliest APT sites dated is from Vanuatu , which was found to be around 3, BP, corresponding to the initial migration wave of the Austronesians. These early sites are largely characterized by face motifs and hand stencils. Later sites from 1, BP onwards, however, begin to show regional divergence in their art styles. APT can be readily distinguished from older Pleistocene -era Australo-Melanesian cave paintings by their motifs, colour, and composition, though they can often be found in the same locality.
The most recognizable motifs of APT like boats do not Catamaran Building Bahrain Kit occur in cave paintings or engravings that definitely pre-date the Austronesian arrival, the sole exception being the stencilled hand motif.
Some APT examples are also characteristically found in relatively inaccessible locations like very high up in cliffsides overlooking the sea. No traces of APT has been found in Taiwan or the Philippines, though there is continuity in the motifs of spirals and concentric circles found in ancestral petroglyphs.
The majority of these sites are in coastal New Guinea, and Island Melanesia. AES sites, which can be tentatively traced back to the similar Wanshan petroglyphs of Taiwan, are believed to be largely correlated to the prehistoric extent of the Lapita culture.
The common motif of this tradition is curvilinear geometric engravings like spirals, concentric circles, and face-like forms. These resemble the geometric motifs in APT, though they are considered to be two separate artistic traditions. O'Connor et al. Along with AES, these material symbols and associated rituals and technologies may been the manifestations of "powerful ideologies" spread by Austronesian settlers that were central to the "Neolithization" and rapid assimilation of the various non-Austronesian indigenous populations of ISEA and Melanesia.
The easternmost islands of Island Melanesia Vanuatu , Fiji , and New Caledonia are considered part of Remote Oceania as they are beyond the interisland visibility threshold. While their art traditions show a clear continuation of the APT and AES traditions, they also feature innovations unique to each island group, like the increasing use of black charcoal, rectilinear motifs, and being found more inside sacred caves rather than in open cliffsides.
In Micronesia , the rock art traditions can be divided into three general regions: western, central, and eastern Micronesia. The divisions reflect the various major migration waves from the Philippines into the Mariana Islands and Palau at 3, BP; a Lapita culture back-migration from Island Melanesia into central and eastern Micronesia at around 2, BP; and finally a back-migration from western Polynesia into eastern Micronesia at around 1, BP.
In western Micronesia Palau , Yap , Guam , and the Northern Mariana Islands , rock art primarily consist of paintings on high cave ceilings and sea-facing cliffs. They are very similar to APT in terms of their motifs as well as their relatively inaccessible locations. Common motifs include hand stencils, faces, turtles and fish, concentric circles, and characteristic four-pointed stars.
Petroglyphs are rare, but mainly consist of human forms with triangular bodies without heads or arms. This is believed to be connected to the funerary rite of removing the heads from the bodies of deceased relatives. These are capped stone pillars which are believed to have served as supports for raised buildings. They are associated with the Latte period to CE , when a new wave of migrants from Southeast Asia reintroduced rice cultivation into the islands.
Another megalithic tradition is also that of the rai stones , massive doughnut-shaped discs of rock which were used as currency in Yap. Rock art in central Micronesia Chuuk , Pohnpei , and Kosrae , in contrast, are dominated by rock engravings with motifs tying it to the rock art traditions of Island Melanesia. They include curvilinear shapes like spirals and concentric circles, tree-like shapes, and the distinctive "enveloped cross" motif.
The Pohnpaid petroglyphs are the largest assemblage of rock engravings in the region, with motifs dominated by footprints, enveloped crosses, and outlined "sword-paddles". In the low-lying atolls of eastern Micronesia, rock art is rare to nonexistent, due to the absence of suitable rock surfaces for painting or engraving. In Polynesia , rock art is dominated by petroglyphs, rather than paintings, and they show less variation than the rock art of Near Oceania and ISEA.
In the western Polynesian islands nearest to Island Melanesia, rock art is rare like in Tonga and Samoa or are absent entirely like in the Cook Islands. However, petroglyphs are abundant in the islands in the further reaches of the Polynesian triangle, particularly in Hawaii , the Marquesas , and Rapa Nui.
In Tonga and Samoa , the existing rock art sites consist mostly of engravings with motifs including curvilinear shapes, human figures, "jellyfish", turtles, birds, and footprints. These are typically carved in natural rock formations or marae sites. In the central-eastern Polynesian islands, which include the Marquesas and the Society Islands , petroglyphs are more numerous.
They show the archetypal Polynesian motifs of turtles, faces, cup-like depressions cupules , stick-like human figures, boats, fish, curvilinear shapes, and concentric circles. Like Catamaran Building Plans For Sale In Uk in western Polynesia, they are typically carved into marae sites or in rocks beside streams. The existing rock paintings also display the same motifs but are rendered in different styles. In the Hawaiian islands, the abundant petroglyphs are remarkably all similar in execution. Their common subjects include stick-like human figures, dogs, boats, sails, paddles, footprints, and ceremonial headdresses.
Depictions of marine life, however, is rare, unlike the rest of Polynesia. They are typically carved into boulders, lava rock formations, and cliffsides. In Rapa Nui , the engravings are distinctive but still show similarities to the techniques and motifs of the Marquesas.
Their motifs commonly include disembodied parts of the human body vulvae in particular , animals, plants, ceremonial objects, and boats. A prominent motif is also that of the "birdman" figure which is associated with the tangata manu cult of Makemake. The most well-known rock art assemblage of Rapa Nui, however, are the moai megaliths. A few paintings mostly of birds and boats have also been discovered which are associated with the engravings, rather than being separate artforms.
The rock art in New Zealand can be divided into two regions. North Island features more engravings than paintings, while South Island is unique in that it is the only Polynesian island where there are more paintings than engravings. New Zealand rock paintings are done in red and black pigments and can sometimes be found in inaccessible heights.
They typically depict human figures particularly a front-facing human figure with flexed arms , birds, lizards, dogs, fish, and what has been identified as "birdmen". Engravings in open spaces like cliffsides are generally of spirals and curvilinear shapes, while engravings in enclosed caves and shelters depict faces and boats. The same motifs can also be seen in dendroglyphs on living trees. With the possible exception of rongorongo on Rapa Nui , Austronesians did not have an indigenous writing system but rather adopted or developed writing systems after contact with various non-Austronesian cultures.
Rongorongo, said to have originally been called kohau motu mo rongorongo "lines of inscriptions for chanting out" , is the only pre-contact indigenous Austronesian system of glyphs that appear to be true writing or at least proto-writing. They consist of around glyphs, ranging from representations of plants to animals, celestial objects, and geometric shapes.
They were inscribed into wooden tablets about 12 to 20 in 30 to 51 cm long using shark teeth and obsidian flakes. Although of the surviving two dozen tablets, a few were made from trees introduced after European contact, as well as wood originating from European ships and driftwood. Although some rongorongo glyphs may have been derived from these petroglyphs, rongorongo does not appear in any of the abundant rock carvings in Rapa Nui and seems to be restricted to the wooden tablets.
He brought the tablets to the world's attention and instructed the Rapa Nui mission to gather more information about them. But by then, most of the tablets were allegedly already destroyed, presumed to have been used as fuel by the natives in the deforested island. At the time of discovery of the tablets, Rapa Nui had undergone severe depopulation. This was largely due to the loss of the island's last trees and the Peruvian and Chilean slave raids in the early s.
The literate ruling classes of the Rapa Nui people including the royal family and the religious caste and the majority of the island's population were kidnapped or killed in the slave raids. Most of those taken died after only one or two years in captivity from the harsh working conditions and European diseases. Succeeding epidemics of smallpox and tuberculosis further decimated the island's population to the point that there were not enough people to bury the dead.
The last remnants of the Rapa Nui people were assimilated by the Tahitians who were later brought to the island in an effort to repopulate it, further resulting in the loss of most of the Old Rapa Nui language. Oral tradition holds that the ruling classes were the only ones who could read the tablets, and the ability to decipher the tablets was lost along with them.
Numerous attempts have been made to read the tablets, starting from a few years after their discovery. But to this day, none have proven successful. Some authors have proposed that rongorongo may have been an attempt to imitate European script after the idea of writing was introduced during the "signing" of the Spanish Treaty of Annexation or through knowledge of European writing acquired elsewhere.
They cite various reasons including the lack of attestation of rongorongo prior to the s, the clearly more recent provenance of some of the tablets, the lack of antecedents, and the lack of additional archaeological evidence since its discovery.
Others argue that it was merely a mnemonic list of symbols meant to guide incantations. Whether rongorongo is merely an example of trans-cultural diffusion , or a true indigenous Austronesian writing system and one of the few independent inventions of writing in human history remains unknown and may never be known. In Southeast Asia, the first true writing systems of pre-modern Austronesian cultures were all derived from the Grantha and Pallava Brahmic scripts , all of which are abugidas from South India.
Various forms of abugidas spread throughout Austronesian cultures in Southeast Asia as kingdoms became Indianized through early maritime trading. The oldest use of abugida scripts in Austronesian cultures are 4th century stone inscriptions written in Cham script from Vietnam. There are numerous other Brahmic-derived writing systems among Southeast Asian Austronesians, usually specific to a certain ethnic group.
They vary from having letters with rounded shapes to letters with sharp cuneiform -like angles; a result of the difference in writing mediums, with the former being ideal for writing on soft leaves and the latter ideal for writing on bamboo panels. The use of the scripts ranged from mundane records to encoding esoteric knowledge on magico-religious rituals and folk medicine. In regions which converted to Islam, abjads derived from the Arabic script started replacing the earlier abugidas at around the 13th century in Southeast Asia.
Madagascar , as well, adopted the Arabic script in the 14th century. Abjads, however, have an even greater inherent problem with encoding Austronesian languages than abugidas, because Austronesian languages have more varied and salient vowels which the Arabic script can not usually encode. As a result, the Austronesian adaptations such as the Jawi and the Pegon scripts have been modified with a system of diacritics that encode sounds, both vowels and consonants, native to Austronesian languages but absent in Semitic languages.
Vanuatu has a unique tradition of sand drawing , by which images are created by a single continuous line drawn in the sand. It is believed to have functioned as a means of symbolic communication in pre-contact Island Melanesia , especially between travelers and ethnic groups that do not speak the same language.
The sand drawings consist of around different designs, and seem to be shared across language groups. Body art among Austronesian peoples is common, especially elaborate tattooing which is one of the most well-known pan-Austronesian traditions. In modern times, tattoos are usually associated with Polynesian culture, due to the highly influential accounts of James Cook in his explorations of the Pacific in the 18th century. However, tattoos exist prominently in various other Austronesian groups prior to contacts with other cultures.
Tattoos had various functions among Austronesian societies. Among men, they were strongly linked to the widespread practice of head-hunting raids. In head-hunting societies, tattoos were records of how many heads the warriors had taken in battle, and was part of the initiation rites into adulthood.
The number and location of tattoos, therefore, were indicative of a warrior's status and prowess. Among the Indigenous Taiwanese , tattoos were present for both men and women. Among the Tayal people , facial tattoos are dominant. They indicated maturity and skill in weaving and farming for women, and skill in hunting and battle for men. Like in most of Austronesia, tattooing traditions in Taiwan have largely disappeared due to the Sinicization of native peoples after the Chinese colonization of Taiwan in the 17th century, as well as conversion to Christianity.
Most of the remaining tattoos are only found among elders. One of the earliest descriptions of Austronesian tattoos by Europeans was during the 16th century Spanish expeditions to the Philippines , beginning with the first voyage of circumnavigation by Ferdinand Magellan. The Spanish encountered the heavily tattooed Visayan people in the Visayas Islands , whom they named the " Pintados " Spanish for "the painted ones".
Philippine tattoos were usually geometric patterns or stylized depictions of animals, plants, and human figures. Teeth blackening was the custom of dyeing one's teeth black with various tannin -rich plant dyes. It was practiced throughout almost the entire range of Austronesia, including Island Southeast Asia, Madagascar, Micronesia, and Island Melanesia, reaching as far east as Malaita.
However, it was absent in Polynesia. The practice was primarily preventative, as it reduced the chances of developing tooth decay similar to modern dental sealants.
It also had cultural significance and was seen as beautiful. A common sentiment was that blackened teeth separated humans from animals. Teeth blackening was often done in conjunction with other modifications to the teeth associated with beauty standards, including teeth removal evulsion and teeth filing. Austronesian architecture is highly diverse, often with striking designs; but they all share certain characteristics that indicate a common origin.
The most ubiquitous common feature of Austronesian structures is the raised floor. The structures are raised on piles , usually with space underneath also utilized for storage or domestic animals. The raised design had multiple advantages, they mitigate damage during flooding and in very tall examples can act as defensive structures during conflicts.
The house posts are also distinctively capped with larger-diameter discs at the top, to prevent vermin and pests from entering the structures by climbing them. Austronesian houses and other structures are usually built in wetlands and alongside bodies of water, but can also be built in the highlands or even directly on shallow water.
Building structures on pilings is believed to be derived from the design of raised granaries and storehouses, which are highly important status symbols among the ancestrally rice-cultivating Austronesians.
Another common feature are pitched roofs with ornamented gables. The most notable of which are the saddlebacked roofs, a design common for longhouses used for village meetings or ceremonies. The overall effect of which is reminiscent of boats, underlining the strong maritime connections of Austronesian cultures. The boat motif is common throughout, particularly in eastern Indonesia. In some ethnic groups, the houses are built on platforms that resemble catamarans. Among the Nage people , a woven representation of a boat is added to the ridge of the roof; among the Manggarai people , the roofs of houses are shaped like an upside-down boat; while among the people of Tanimbar and eastern Flores , the ridge itself is carved into a representation of a boat.
Furthermore, elements of Austronesian structures as well as society in general are often referred to in terminologies used for boats and sailing. These include calling elements of structures as "masts", "sails", or "rudders" or calling the village leaders as "captains" or "steersmen".
In the case of the Philippines, the villages themselves are referred to as barangay , from an alternate form of balangay , a type of sailboat used for trading and colonization. Austronesian buildings have spiritual significance, often containing what is coined by anthropologist James J.
Fox as a "ritual attractor. The Austronesian house itself also often symbolizes various aspects of indigenous Austronesian cosmology and animism. In the majority of cases, the loft of the house usually placed above the hearth , is considered to be the domain of deities and spirits. It is essentially a raised granary built into the structure of the house itself and functioned as a second floor.
It is usually used to store sacred objects like effigies of granary idols or deceased ancestors , heirlooms, and other important objects. These areas are usually not part of the regular living space, and may only be accessible to certain members of the family or after performing a specific ritual. Other parts of the house may also be associated with certain deities, and thus certain activities like receiving guests or conducting marriage ceremonies can only be performed in specific areas.
While rice cultivation wasn't among the technologies carried into Remote Oceania , raised storehouses still survived. These were used to store implements, weapons, ships, and other valuables; while smaller pataka s were used to store provisions. A special type of pataka supported by a single tall post also had ritual importance and were used to isolate high-born children during their training for leadership. The majority of Austronesian structures are not permanent.
They are made from perishable materials like wood, bamboo, plant fibre, and leaves. Similar to traditional Austronesian boats, they do not use nails but are traditionally constructed solely by joints, weaving, ties, and dowels.
Elements of the structures are repaired and replaced regularly or as they get damaged. Because of this, archaeological records of prehistoric Austronesian structures are usually limited to traces of house posts, with no way of determining the original building plans.
Indirect evidence of traditional Austronesian architecture, however, can be gleaned from their contemporary representations in art, like in friezes on the walls of later Hindu-Buddhist stone temples like in reliefs in Borobudur and Prambanan. But these are limited to the recent centuries. They can also be reconstructed linguistically from shared terms for architectural elements, like ridge-poles, thatch, rafters, house posts, hearth, notched log ladders, storage racks, public buildings, and so on.
Linguistic evidence also makes it clear that stilt houses were already present among Austronesian groups since at least the Late Neolithic. Arbi et al. Particularly the buildings of the Ise Grand Shrine , which contrast with the pit-houses typical of the Neolithic Yayoi period. They propose significant Neolithic contact between the people of southern Japan and Austronesians or pre-Austronesians that occurred prior to the spread of Han Chinese cultural influence to the islands.
Besakana of the Merina people. Bahay kubo of the Tagalog people. Bure of the Fijian people. Jabu of the Toba Batak people. Rumoh of the Acehnese people. The religious traditions of the Austronesian people focus mostly on ancestral spirits, nature spirits and gods. It is basically a complex animistic religion. Mythologies vary by culture and geographical location but share common basic aspects such as ancestor worship , animism , shamanism and the belief in a spirit world and powerful deities.
Currently, many of these beliefs have gradually been replaced. Many Austronesian religious beliefs were incorporated into foreign religions introduced unto them, such as Hinduism , Buddhism , Christianity and Islam. Aloalo funerary pole of the Sakalava people of Madagascar. Adu zatua ancestor carvings of the Nias people of western Indonesia. Taotao carvings of anito ancestor spirits from the Ifugao people , Philippines.
Stone tiki from Hiva Oa , Marquesas. Moai in Ahu Tongariki , Rapa Nui. Toraja tau tau wooden statue of the deceased in South Sulawesi , Indonesia. Alaska commissioned the fast ferries in the mids. They were popular because they completed voyages in about half the time as conventional ships. The ferries were taken out of service in and The marine highway system cited rising fuel costs and poor performance in rough seas. The amount the state is seeking for the purchase of the ferries was not clear.
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Manchester City Live CC p. Chelsea Live CC a. Northern Ireland Live CC a. Known the world over for its cultural appreciation and embrace of the dead and the great beyond � not to mention for being the birthplace of magical realism in literature � Latin America has some of the most interesting rituals, religious ceremonies and outlooks on death and the afterlife to be found anywhere.
Share in the stories of various people from across Latin America who have claimed to have been followed, terrorized and preyed upon by all manner of spirits, demons and entities during their lives. From mysterious figures to the reappearance of long-dead family members and beyond, this series brings viewers into the supernatural action by way of dramatic reenactments of real-life occurrences. Imprisoned in a South African jail on charges of conspiring to overthrow the state following the Rivonia trials in the early s, Nelson Mandela Elba was given a life sentence for fighting for the rights of freedom of the people.
Torn apart from his family and the South African people for whom he cared so deeply, for years Mandela served his sentence, prepared to die for his beliefs. Then, one day, the world started to fight for Mandela.
The s saw the worldwide rise of the newly launched Free Nelson Mandela campaign, the movement that eventually led to his release in , 27 years after his imprisonment. Focusing on famous Dutch postimpressionist painter Vincent van Gogh, portrayed by four-time Oscar nominee Willem Dafoe. Paid Program The Aviators Amer. N Daybreak at a. A boy enrolls in a boarding school for wizards. An ambitious movie producer captures a giant ape. Los Gonzalez F. A swimmer joins the U.
Coast Guard. Hogwarts is plagued by mysterious attacks. Jackson, Tom Hiddleston. Chicago P. A simple man tells his extraordinary life story. Nanny takes over household. N Ent. Harry becomes a competitor in a tournament between three wizarding schools. Bilbo and the dwarves must brave the next stage of their journey without Gandalf.
Sir Thomas More faces death. Jean Gabin. Loud H. A magical nanny FREE 88 63 girl is turned into a frog after kissing a prince. A woman falls for a boot camp client. Girls Girls MNT. Tune in and rev up for an afternoon of beautiful and rare classic cars. For the 52nd year, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People presents this awards show dedicated to celebrating outstanding contributions to the creative arts.
In this rebroadcast, self-cleaning bedding, a headache-relief device and an Italian-inspired snack bar are featured. Take a trip to the French countryside for an all-new episode of this regal series. Harry faces trial after using magic outside of school. A lawyer defends his cousin in a murder case. Reilly, Will Ferrell. A Hobbit helps dwarves regain Lonely Mountain. Girls "Bang the Drum, Stanley" G. Girls Pt. Movie The Golden Girls. Vasily Lepikhin. Harry and Dumbledore set out to defeat Voldemort.
The Avengers ally with the Guardians of the Galaxy. An ancient foe plans to attack the Lonely Mountain. Walker, Bethany Joy Lenz. S1 S2 NET3 12 Storage W. Champions continues with first round battles. Susan Hayward. Designer meets lost love. A disillusioned priest is reunited with a woman.
Housewives Atlanta Atlanta " N Breakdown" N and Proud! Tune in for an all-new episode of this game show featuring a gigantic slot machine.
Worse still, Zoey Clarke Jane Levy hears them all as songand-dance routines. Alex Newell also stars. Jones also star. George D.
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