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However, to ensure a high-quality finished product, it is necessary to begin with a high-quality raw product. This, once again, accentuates the importance of primary processes. Silting Whether an end in itself, or as part of a smoking or drying process, salting has been used for thousands of years to preserve marine products.

Salting has no adverse effect on the value of fish protein. Bacterial growth can be significantly retarded by the presence of sufficient quantities of common salt sodium chloride. When fish is placed in a brine solution, the salt penetrates the fish, and water is extracted from the tissues by osmosis.

At a salt concentration of percent in the fish, the activity of most bacteria that cause spoilage will be inhibited. The higher the salt concentration in the fish, the. Several methods of salting are cornrnonly used: dry salting, kench salting, brine salting, and pickle salting. Dry salting is the simplest method and is used primarily for fish with high water content. Granular salt is rubbed onto the outer and inner surfaces of the fish.

Kench salting is a similar method that involves stacking split fish and layers of salt. The pickle or liquid formed is allowed to drain. In Brazil and India, sardines are preserved by pressing and salting. Avoiding air expo- sure is almost unpossible in these dry-salting processes. The wet-salting methods brine and pickle are recommended for tropical applications, especially with fatty fish.

In brine salting, the entire or split fish is immersed in an aqueous salt solution. For strongly cured fish, about 30 g of salt per g of fish is needed. During processing, the brine solution will become diluted as water is drawn from the fish, and. Plastic or wooden barrels can be used for brine treatment. The largest fish should be able to lie flat in the container.

A wooden lid, which can be weighted, should be employed to ensure that the fish are submerged in the brine solution. Another wet cure is pickle salting. The fish are covered with salt and placed in layers with salt between the layers.

Since a watertight container is used, the brine that is formed begins to cover the fish. A lid is placed over the fish to ensure that they are completely submerged in the liquid. Halophilic or salt-tolerant bacteria or molds may grow on in- completely dried salted fish or on dry salted fish that have become moist. However, pickle-cured fish are free of growths of halophiles, because these organisms are aerobic, and the brine of pickle-cured fish does not contain sufficient oxygen to support their growth.

This oxygen-poor environment also reduces rancidity in fatty fish. Drylllg Much of the fish in rural areas of the tropics Is preserved by sun drying. While the cost of sun drying is low, there are significant losses due to spoilage, contamination by dust, and insect infestation, particularly when the fish are laid close to the ground.

As a first step, raised structures would reduce contamination from some wastes and insects. Solar fish driers are simple and inexpensive and can eliminate much of the spoilage that occurs with traditional drying methods. These driers usually have a wood or bamboo-frame table, covered with plastic or glass to produce an enclosed chamber figure 5. The surface of the table can be covered with black plastic or paint to absorb the sun's heat.

With openings at the top and bottom of the drier, air will be heated and flow around the fish. Fish exposed to this flow of heated air will rapidly lose moisture, reducing drying time by as much as half over open-air drying.

Solar driers have a number of advantages over traditional drying methods. They exclude rain, insects, animals, and dirt, and can produce. Doe temperatures blab enough to reduce the posslblUty of mold or bacteria spoilage. An oil drum solar drier has a creative design figure 5. The ends of the drum are removed and three rectangular ports are cut in the side.

The drum is mounted on a wooden frame that includes air vents and access doors on both ends of the drum. Two sheets of clear plastic enclose the drum.

These allow sunlight to heat the drum and, because of the air space between the two sheets, provide insulation to retain the heat.

The outside of the drum is painted black to absorb solar radiation and the inside is painted white. This heated air then enters the drum through the rectangular ports and passes over the trays of fish in the drum and out through the vents at the ends of the drier. When in use, fish are placed on the bamboo supports and transparent plastic covers the top.

A mud wall solar drier has been developed in Tanzania. The bamboo tubes have a number of small holes so that air can flow into the drier. Fish trays are placed on top of the bamboo tubes and openings are cut into the top edge of the wall to exhaust the heated air. The inside walls and bottom of the drier are plastered with mud that is mixed with charcoal powder to absorb the heat. In addition, a layer of dark-colored stones can be placed in the bottom of the dryer to provide heat storage.

The roof can be a transparent plastic sheet or film. A solar dome dryer figure 5. Designed on the basis of results with solar tent driers, this large unit has a capacity of about 1 ton of prepared fish.

Use of the solar dome dryer also significantly reduced contamination from insects, animals, and dust. A solar collector can also be attached to a cabinet drier figure 5. The solar plate collector uses black coated, corrugated metal to absorb the radiation. This is covered by a double panel of glass. Or plastic to insulate the warm air inside the collector. Air passes on both sides of the metal collector, becomes heated, and flows into the upright cabinet drier and through the trays.

The solar agrowaste-fueled drier was designed and constructed in the Philippines figure 5. It has the advantage of utilizing alternative energy resources in the absence of solar heat.

The drier has both a solar booster and furnace. The body of the drier is trapezoidal and is made of wood or aluminum frames covered with polyacetate film. Black film covers the bottom of the drier. The side walls have up to 4 doors that allow 14 trays x 53 cm to slide into the drier. Woven nylon screen is used to line the bottom of the trays. The top portion of the back wall has several screened warm-air outlets.

A small stove can be connected to the drier. Charcoal or agricultural waste materials can be used as fuels in the stove furnace. Warm air from the stove is regulated with a shutter so that only heat enters the unit while fumes are excluded. The solar system may be used alone or simultaneously with the stove. Alternatively, the agrowaste system may be operated alone in the absence of solar heat or solar heat can be used during Boat Construction Materials Kit the day and agrowaste drying at night.

Other models of low-cost fish driers use only agrowaste as fuel. The agrowaste fish drier figure 5. The trays in the drier can hold up to kg of fresh fish. At the base of the structure is a furnace made of hollow blocks, with inside dimensions of 0. An exhaust tube carries smoke and gases outside the system. The furnace and drying chamber Boat Construction Materials 500 are separated by a corrugated, galvanized iron heat guard.

Smoke contains substances that kid bacteria, thus helping to preserve the product. The heat also dries the fish. Often fish are salted before they are smoked. In tropical countries, fish are generally heavily smoked at relatively high temperatures so that they are also cooked.

This is usually long enough to eliminate the non- sporulating spoilage bacteria. However, the spores of Bacillus sublil" and B.

The bactericidal action of the smoke is considerably increased by the presence of salt in the fish. In simple smokers, fish are laid on trays or hung in the column of smoky air above the fire. The traditional Ghanaian mud oven Is cylindrical, with a thatched cover figure 5. The oven consists of layers of mud about 2.

Grill bars are installed at about 1 m off the ground. The fish, placed on the grill bars, must be regularly turned to encourage even drying and smoking. A stokehole is located in the base wall. The drums are cut along their length and rejoined to form a larger cylinder. Fish are smoked on grills within this cylinder.

The Ivory Coast kiln figure 5. The base of the kiln is 2 x 2 m and is about 1 m high. The sides are sheet metal or corrugated zinc, nailed to wooden support posts in the four corners. A steel drum, with a hole cut about one-third of the way down the side, is laid horizontally through one of the kiln walls. The fish trays are stacked on top of the oven. Another improved oven is an agrowaste fish drier and smoke chamber, developed in the Philippines figure 5.

The chamber is made of sheet metal and has three doors in the front where trays can be inserted. Charcoal or agrowastes are burned in the combustion chamber in the back of the smoker.

After circulating through the drier, the smoke exits through three exhaust valves into the top of the structure. The Chorkor smoker figure 5. The de- sign, based on traditional smokers, has a long life, low construction cost, and low firewood consumption. The capacity of this smoker is large; up to 18 kg of fish can be smoked on each tray, and as many as 15 trays can fit on an oven.

The ovens are rectangular and about twice as long as they are wide. There is a dividing wall in the middle, two stokeholes in the front, and a fire pit in each chamber. The walls are made of clay mud, cement, or clay blocks. The top of the walls must be level so that the wooden-framed trays can rest snugly against them. The oven should be low, but the fire ought to be at least 60 cm below the lowest tray.

The wooden frames of the drying trays rest on the edge of the oven walls and therefore do not catch fire. These trays effectively form a chimney above the fire in which heat and smoke constantly circulate. Small and medium fish may be smoked whole or split; large fish are cut into fillets. This smoking process yields a product with 1 15 percent moisture content and may require from 2 hours to 2 days.

Fish smoked with the Chorkor smoker can be stored up to 9 months in the tropics if the trays are tightly covered with plastic,. Brownell and J. This unit is made of hollow concrete blocks with sheet metal doors and chimneys. The fish should be resmoked every 2 months to eliminate mold, bacteria, and insect larvae. Fish Paste Products Kamaboko is a popular fish paste product made from surimi, a washed minced fish common in Japan since the fifteenth cen- tury.

Codfish, croaker, lizard fish, and conger eel have the texture necessary to produce surimi. To prepare surimi, the head and viscera are removed, the fish are cleaned in water, and the bones and skin are removed. Surimi, the minced meat, Is then washed repeatedly with cold fresh water to produce a bland and functional meat. The surimi is then chopped in a cutter for 4 minutes while 30 g of salt per kg of fish are added. Next, potato or wheat starch is added g per kg of fish , and the mixture is chopped for 10 minutes longer.

Sugar 3 g per kg of meat and chopped vegetables may be added before a final 5 minutes of chopping. The resulting paste is then shaped and cooked in a variety of ways.

Kamaboko is produced by shaping the surimi paste into half cylinders, like loaves of bread, on wooden blocks.

The products are packaged in cellophane and have a shelf life of 1 week in warm weather. The surimi may also be shaped into a ball or cake and fried to produce salsuma-age. If it is shaped into a tube and steamed, it is called chikuwa. In Taiwan, fish balls are made from fish paste.

Shark, lizard fish, pike, eel, and marlin are the main species used. It is shaped by hand, made into balls, and then steamed. One advantage of these fish paste products is that the raw materials are not recognizable. Therefore, low-priced fish or fresh species that are disliked can be utilized. Boiled Fish Products Boiling fish in water, as a method of short-term preservation, is accepted throughout Southeast Asia. This method may have. In the top photo, a mason places a top layer of clay mud on a new oven.

Boiling could allow distribution of the catch to market with low-cost equipment and facilities. Boiling denatures the fish proteins and also eliminates many of the bacteria present. Therefore, such treatment may extend the shelf life of the product. Salt may also be added before, during, or after boiling to help retard spoilage. In Indonesia, boiled fish products are known as pin4;ang. Many species, including shark, may be used.

The fish are gutted, washed, and arranged in clay pots or metal bowls, with alternating layers of salt and fish. A little water is added, and the fish are heated until nearly cooked. Most of the liquid is drained, more salt is added, and the fish are heated again until no free water remains. The top of the pot is sealed with leaves or paper.

Shelf life may range from a few days to 3 months, depending on the amount of salt and the container seal. Fermented Products In many Southeast Asian villages, rice and fish are the primary foods. Since both are relatively bland, a long tradition of preparing more flavorful products through fermentation of fish and shrimp has developed.

Since these products are generally derived through hydrolysis in the presence of high salt concentrations, they have good keeping qualities. The nutritive value of the fish or shrimp is retained and the processes are relatively simple.

In some cases, the fish or shrimp retain their original form, but usually the end product is a liquid or paste. Bagoong is a Philippine fermented fish or shrimp paste. Bagoong na isda is the fish derivative, dark gray in color with a cheeselike flavor. Bagoong na alamang is a thick paste obtained through shrimp fermentation. Although pieces of the shrimp re- main, the characteristic aroma of raw shrimp is no longer de- tectable. Bagoong na isda is prepared by mixing three parts of fish with one part of salt and enclosing the mixture in a fermentation jar.

The corresponding. Nuoc-mam is a clear brown liquid, rich in salt and soluble nitrogen compounds, with a distinctive odor and flavor. It is produced in most coastal regions of Vietnam from small sea fish. More recently, production of nuoc-mam from freshwater fish has increased greatly.

Traditionally, the fish are kneaded, salted, and placed in earthenware pots that are tightly sealed and buried in the ground for several months. When opened, the supernatant liquid nuoc-mam is carefully decanted. Except for histidine, nuoc-mam contains good concentrations of the nine essential amino acids. Although not a good source of the B vitamins, it is a valuable supplement to cereal diets through its content of other vitamins and minerals.

Similar methods are used to produce nam-pia in Thailand and palls in the Philippines. In the Philippines, fermented rice and fish mixtures known as burgs are popular. These are prepared by mixing cooked rice and fish or shrimp with salt and allowing the mixture to ferment for up to 7 days.

The products become acidic due to the action of lactic acid bacteria and have a shelf life of about 2 weeks at ambient temperatures figure 5. The pH of sik-hae drops quickly to 4. Indonesian [rassi is a paste made from small shrimp. Inter- estingly, its production starts on shipboard. When caught, the shrimp are finked on deck with about 10 percent salt. On shore, the mixture is respread and more salt is added.

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