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CBSE Class 10 Mathematics Basic Boards Sample Paper Solved Aug 18, �� Likes, 4 Comments - George Mason University | GMU (@georgemasonu) on Instagram: �"As a freshman at Mason, I had difficulties being on . Oct 16, �� @universityofky posted on their Instagram profile: �Like her sticker says, �Find your people.� College is a great place to do just that. Tag �your �. Primary Class Teachers i.e. (Class ), with good communication skills and creative mind. Salary Negotiable. Interested applicants can mail their resume of drsrspura@myboat004 boatplans, or visit the school. Timing AM � PM Address: Ward No. 11, Near Gurudwara Old Patri Road, R.S. Pura. Contact: , TINY TOTS HR. SEC. SCHOOL.
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Principal , You may visit with testimonials 10 AM � 12 Noon. Job Vacancy!! Female Preferably, Experienced, Computer Skilled.

Salary � 7. Urgently Required 1. Pharma qualification for a reputed clinic in Gandhi Nagar. Candidate with basic computer knowledge will be preferred. Mob: , , Electrician � 1 No.

Security Guard � 1 No. No: Staff Required 1. English Teacher � M. Maths Teacher � B. Science Teacher � B. Urdu Teacher 6.

General Line Teacher � B. Ed Come along with your C. V between 9. Com 2 Primary Teacher B. Com 2 years with B. Ed Contact No. IT Leader � 1 to 5 years of exp. MIS Executive 1 to 5 years of exp. Office Assistant, Billing Operator, 2. Accountant, Receptionist, Councellor, 3. Computer Operator, Telle Caller, Helper 4. Contact : , No:- M. Contact: No: , , Candidate with basic computer knowledge will be performed. Sc General Line � 2 No � B.

Tech in Electrical with 3 to 10 years of exp. Salary: 6 to 7 lack PA. Pharma or B. Both Salary 10 to 25K hr7colours gmail. Fresher need not apply. Salary Rs. Send your biodata at the below mentioned address within 7 days. English 1 Post 2. Math 1 Post 3. Hindi 1 Post 4.

Urdu 1 Post 5. Computer 1 Post 6. PPT 2 Post 7. Security Man. Salary 30 k plus TA Whatsapp resume : Wanted Staff 1. TGT 2. PRT 3. Counsellor 6. Receptionist 7. Front Desk Executive 8. Qualification: D. Pharma, B.

Com Contact personally with resume. Mob: , Whatsapp: Interview will held on 30 March at 2. D Nursing 2 Lecturers M.

Sc Nursing Experience Minimum five years Recently retired persons shall get preference Resumes indicating salary expected to be mailed on dar yahoo. Ed Hindi � 2 3. Ed Sociology � 2 4. Ed Economics � 2 5. Ed Mathematics � 2 or M. Sc Chemistry 6. Ed Physics � 2 Principal. Required 1. Teachers for 5th- 10th 3. Wanted A young and energetic salesman is required for the shop of furniture at Bathindi Jammu.

For further information Please Contact Sourab Sharma Please Contact with All original Docs. Salary Negotiable.

Interested persons may send resume to WhatsApp No. Required Tek Infotree invites applications from young and dynamic individuals with exemplary communication skills to come and work with the industry leader in staffing and recruitment. The candidate should be willing to work in U. Young graduates and non-experienced candidates are also encouraged to apply. Salary:- Best in the industry. Intersted candidates are advised to send updated resume at savinash infotreeservice.

Come along with 4 recent Passport size photographs and Curriculum Vitae along with Duplicate and original testimonials. Good salary. Pura Contact No: Qualification : graduation or MBA Preference to candidates with previous work experience in medical field. Salary k Contact , Required In Gandhi Nagar an experienced social media manager well versed with photo shop, corel draw and latest graphics softwares for digital marketing on all social media platforms.

Added knowledge of busy accounting software will be preferred. Urgently Required Backend Executive : 1 to 3 years of Exp. Field Response Officer : 2 to 5 years of Exp. Required Teacher B. ITI Colg. Local would be highly preffered. Contact : G-1, Trikuta Shopping Complex B. C Road Jammu. Candidates having own vehicle will be preferred.

Salary as per Industry Standards. Office Assistant. Computer Operator 2. Civil Engg. Electrical , Mechanical Engg 12no 10k to 15k 3. Office timing 9 to 6 pm Contact at: H. Contact: , The candidate should be willing to work in European shift timings P. Interested candidates are advised to send updated resume at nkohli infotreeservice.

Send your resume on apsingh45 yahoo. No: , Sales Exe. M Good Salary. Location R. Computer Operator m Exp. Dream Makerz A Gandhi Nagar Required Computer Operator Send reumse by email: jklaws yahoo.

Interview Mob: Date :- 25 � 30 of March Tech in Machanical � 1 to 4 year of Exp, Salary negotiable. Accounts Executive: 1 to 5 years of Exp , shreekrishanbala gmail. Contact with resume along with photograph at office at Residency Road, Jammu Ph: Candidates should have their own laptop.

Good command over English is a must. Quality- B. Salary 10 to 25 K. Graphic Designer: 3 to 4 years exp. Salary: 15 to 25 K. Library at Rehari Chungi, Opp.

Gurudwara Sahib, Jammu. Lab teh. Pharma, Driver, Packing boy, 3. ERP 9. Civil engg. Ramada Hotel Between 2 p. Fixed salary with Lucrative incentives. Freshers preferred. Two Wheeler Must. D Financial Consultants. Bhartiya shiksha kender akalpur requires urgently the following teaching staff. Ed will be preferred. Desirous applicants are advised to submit their Bio data alongwith qualification certificates within 15 days.

Contact Nos : Urgently required Store Incharge : 1 to 5 years of Exp. Required Need Computer operator cum helper at shop at Machine Domana. Model Raja Public Hr. Sc Non medical 3. Nursery Trained 5. Sc Math Apply within 05 days alongwith qualification certificates. S Manhas M No. Qualification :- B. Working Exp:- Min. Qualification :- 12th, Bachelor Degree and above. Contact No. Walk-in Interview Pinkcuckoo. Minimum 2 yrs in School.

Contact: , Kachi Chawni, Step up Tutorial. Qualification: B. Ed Whatsapp your Resume at Salary: 10 to 15K Store Executive: 1 to 3 years of Exp.

Both Salary. Admin Executive: 1 to 3 year of Exp. Ed 3 year teaching experience 2 B. Ed for subjects P. Freshers can also apply. Minimum 12th Pass. For more information Call Science BSc B. Required A Boy wanted for a Canteen in the hospital. The hospital in located in the heart of city. Urgently Required Production Supervisor: B. MIS Executive: 1 to 3 years exp salary 15 k. Wanted Wanted a delivery boy for Full Time. Must have a scooty and valid driving License with at least 1 year of experience.

Salary : 5, Contact us at : Placement Coordinator 5 no 15k to 20k IT Trainers for Rajouri 3 no 15k 3. Computer Operator Female 5 no 8k Mob. Email: kanti gmail. Conveyance will be available for staff. Interested candidates may drop in with their biodata with testimonials during week days. Salary will be discussed during interview. Experienced candidates will be preferred. Reception F. Computer operator 2. Floor Executive. Co ordinator. Required Salesman required for Mobile Accessories.

Bike Mendatory Hall No. Salesman- 2 Nos Ph. Minimum 5 yrs successful experience. Salary negotiable Whatsapp resume: Salary Negotiable Interested boys may Contact on Salary 8k to 10k Contact Number: Publish the above add for tomorrow i. Females 1st to 5th:- General Line Teachers. Tel : , E-mail: dewandevischool gmail. Job opportunity Required 1.

Special educatiors B. Ed special education 2. Sociology, Education, Pol. Science Candidates can submit their credentials at the school office before No Salary Bar for experienced persons. Salary � Negotiable. Phone: , Contact: , , Salary Negotiable Contact:- , Montessori Trained Teachers: B.

Urgent required 1. Required 1 Married Female Tele-caller-2 No. Experience-Min 1 year in tele-calling and sales. Graduate, Good Command over English. Salary-7, 2 Female married Computer Operator- 2 No.

Min 2 years experience and graduate. Salary-8, 3 Female married Accountant-1 No. Mail your resume at girish. Call Officers :- 10 Nos. Candidates should speak and understand local languages. Ed with five years experience 2. English PGT Five years experience 2. Sanskrit Teacher MA Interview on and Post Reqd. Qualification 1. Hindi Tr. A Hindi, B. Nursery Tr. Graduation in Arts 3. Sports Tr. Ed Experienced will be preferred. Salary : Negotiable Meet personally on working days between Contact Nos.

Not before masters allowed. Handles Busy accounting software and all accounting problems c. Handles IT-software and all technical problems of office. Accounts Asstt.

Store Manager 3. Sales Executive Air Conditioning 4. AC Technicians Air Conditioning 6. AC Technician Helpers 7. Unskilled : For handling files. Whats app your CV on or email: services pragyawan. Salary : 20 to 25 K Faculty : B. Salary negotiable Contact immediately , Preferably MBA Tourism. Contact : Mail resume at nidhikitu gmail. Salary : 12 to 15 K Qualify : B. Salary 20 to 30 K hr7colours gmail. Urgently Required Accounts Executive : 1 to 3 years of Exp. Goyal sales corporation Particulars Nos 1.

As per qualification Teaching experience shall be given preference. You can send your resume on mail id chenab gmail. Salary 10 to 15 k Sr. Sales Executive: 1 to 3 year of Exp. Wanted A computer operator with good command over English and good Communication skill. Those interested may please contact on under noted Mobile Nos. Attractive Salary Contact mail: unitedagencies16 gmail. Salary 20 to 30 K. Graphic Designer: 4 to 8 years of Exp. Salary 15 to 25 K. Sap Implimention: Bachelor in IT with 1 to 5 years of exp.

Salary 25 to 35 K. Quality: B. Sc in Chemistry. Salary 10 to 15 K. Manhas M. General Line Teachers � 3 Nos 4. Placement coordinator 5 no 15k to 20k IT trainers for Rajouri 3 no 15k 3.

For Local City deliveries. Interested come Contact: Min 1 year experience required. Knowlege of Excel is a must. Fresher interesting to join media will be prefer and give chance to work under senior journalists. Interested candidate plz call or submit ur cv- thepropertynews1 gmail. Candidates having Managerial Degree with Good Communication skills and 1 year work experience can Apply. Salary upto Rs.

Experience Person will be prefered. Contact at: , Time: 9 AM to 5. Rajinder Singh , Salary Cbse Class 10 Mathematics Algebra - I Ed negotiable Whatsapp resume : Shangrilla Public School Sarwal, Jammu. Ed Kindly come alongwith resume on all working days Timing : Computer Operator Min. Sales Manager Automobile Manufacture Industry 5. Sale Girls Required for Show Room 6. Teacher Required M. Ed, B. Required M. Bantalab Road, Jammu.

Com Honours Application with complete CV may be sent by email address: admgmcej gmail. Teacher should be capable of teaching upto 10th Class. Good Salary Contact- Required Staff 1. Marketing Executive. Contact: , Email id: businessskyyug gmail. Note :- Freshers can also apply. Vacancy Required Salesman � 1 No.

Helper- 1 No. Experience- 1 year in same field Salary Negotiable Contact :- Ed 4 English teacher upto 10th class B. Ed 5 Science teacher upto 10th Class B. Ed Contact : , Bakshi Nagar Jammu. Required following staff Office Incharge : 1 to 3 years of Exp.

Both: Salary : 7 to 9 K Admin. Salary : 25 to 35 Thousand Graphic Designer : 3 to 5 years of Exp. Salary : 15 to 25 Thousand Marketing Executive : 1 to 3 years of Exp. Salary : 15 to 25 Thousand hr7colours gmail. Ed Contact along with your resume within 3 days. Salary negotiable Kindly those apply who are nearby to the location.

Urgent Required.. Full time site architect and site engineer required at site for a prestigious project in Jammu. Tele Caller � 5 10k 2. Nos Pl. Qualification : 12th passed Minimum Contact : Wanted A computer operator with good command over english and good Communication skill. Salary � Negotiable Quality: B. Salary: 10 to 15 thousand. Accounts Executive: 1 to 5 years of exp. Salary 10 to 20 thousand. Security Supervisor 2. Peon 3. Computer Operator 4. Helper 5.

Showroom male sales executive Ph. Wanted Sales Executive 1. Experience- Qualified Teacher with minimum 2 years of teaching experience. Excellent command over the language. Location � Trikuta Nagar Contact: Urgently Required 1 Female for Receptionist with good communication skills in reputed Tutorial. Timing 10 Mathematics Class 10 Cbse Sample Papers Institute am to 5 pm Contact : Accommodation available.

Send your application to the following address. Send your resume on Email Contact :- , , kashmirfeedindustries gmail.

Qualification : B. Ltd, Jammu before between am to Name two substances having high ignition temperature. Name some common fuels. Name some solid fuels. Name some liquid fuels. Name some gaseous fuels. Which is the most common fire extinguisher? Name one substance which burn in air at room temperature? How are heat and light produced in the sun? Name the term which is used to express the efficiency of a fuel. Describe one method of putting out a fire caused by burning wood or paper.

How will you put out a fire caused by burning wood or paper? Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed. What is global warming? What is fuel? Which gas is produced due to incomplete combustion of fuel? Name the fuel which is gradually replacing petrol and diesel in automobiles. What is ignition temperature?

What is the ignition temperature of a substance? What is meant by the calorific value of a fuel? Chapter 6 - Combustion and Flame� 2. What is combustion? Why food is called fuel for our body?

Why is the innermost zone of a flame black in colour? Explain how CO2 is able to control fires. Which is the best fire extinguisher for fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like petrol?

Why is water not used to control fires involving electrical equipment? Explain why fire caused by electricity should not be extinguished by pouring water?

Why water is not suitable for extinguishing fire caused due to electrical appliances? Why can we not use water to extinguish fire caused due to electrical appliances? What are the harmful products released by the burning of fuels? What is rapid combustion? Give one example. Why are fires produced by burning oil not extinguished by pouring water?

Water is not suitable for fires involving oil and petrol. The fire produced by petrol cannot be extinguished by using water. Explain why? What causes global warming?

What are the effects of global warming? What is combustible substance? What is non-combustible substance? Can you burn a piece of wood by bringing a lighted matchstick near it? How forest fires occur during the hottest summer days? Why do forest fires occur during hot summers?

Chapter 6 - Combustion and Flame� 3. What chemicals can put out a fire? Why do you have to use paper or kerosene oil to start fire in wood or coal? Explain why we are advised not to sleep in a closed room with a coal fire burning.

Why is it not advisable to sleep in a closed room with burning coal in the fireplace during winters? Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped around an aluminium pipe does not. How is fire caused by electricity extinguished? What are inflammable substances? Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver and why?

What is the colour of the different zones of a flame? It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily. What is spontaneous combustion? How does pouring water extinguish a fire? What is explosion? Explain with the help of example. Chapter 6 - Combustion and Flame� 4. In an experiment 4. The heat produced was measured to be , kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.

List conditions under which combustion can take place. What are the conditions necessary for combustion to take place? When the clothes of a person catch fire the person is covered with a blanket to extinguish fire.

Can you guess why? Why is a person whose clothes have caught fire wrapped in a thick blanket? Why do we cover a burning person in the blanket as a first aid? What should be done if the clothes of a person catch fire accidentally? What does a fire brigade do when it arrives at a place where a building is on fire? When a fire brigade arrives at a place where a building is on fire, what does it do? Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be heated in a beaker.

Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter time? Can the process of rusting be called combustion?

State any three characteristics of an ideal fuel. What are the characteristics of an ideal fuel? What is an ideal fuel? What is acid rain? How is acid rain harmful? What are the causes and effects of acid rain? If a can full of kerosene catches fire, what is the simplest way to put off this fire?

What is explosive combustion? Chapter 6 - Combustion and Flame� 5. Cover it with a glass jar or a tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. Observe what happens.

Does charcoal stop burning after sometime? Can you think of the reason why it stops burning? Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced Basic Mathematics Class 10 Cbse Classic pollution in our cities. Arrange the following fuels in the increasing order of their calorific value. What is matchstick made of? How do matchsticks work?

Does a matchstick burn by itself? How does it burn? Compare LPG and wood as fuels. Why is LPG a better domestic fuel than wood? What are the harmful effects of burning fuels? Chapter 6 - Combustion and Flame� 6.

Pour about 50 mL of water in one of the cups. Heat both the cups separately with a candle. What do you observe? What happens to the empty paper cup and why? What happens to the paper cup with water and why? Does water in this cup become hot? How will you show that air is necessary for combustion? Write an activity to show that oxygen is necessary for combustion.

How would you show that air is needed for combustion? How will you show that air is essential for burning fuels? What will happen if a burning candle is covered with a glass jar? Write an experiment to show that air is essential for burning. Explain the structure of candle flame with diagram. Chapter 7 - Conservation of Plants and Animals� 1. What are endangered species? What are extinct species? What gas do plants use in photosynthesis?

Which gas is used in photosynthesis? Name two national parks. Name the first Reserve Forest of India. What is Biosphere? What is deforestation? What is Red Data Book? What do you mean by wildlife? Name two wildlife sanctuaries. How many rock shelters have been identified in the Pachmarhi biosphere reserve? What is a wildlife sanctuary? What are the aims of the 'Forest Conservation Act' in India? What is the purpose of making national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves?

Chapter 7 - Conservation of Plants and Animals� 2. Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Some tribals depend on the jungle. What is the role of biosphere reserves? What is the purpose of biosphere reserves? What are the protected areas which have been earmarked to protect our flora and fauna and their habitats? What is ecosystem? What was the objective of this project? What do you understand by the term migration? What is biological diversity or biodiversity? Name some species which are endemic to Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.

Which is reforestation? How recycling of paper helps in the conservation of forests? Why do birds migrate? Name some of the threatened wild animals which are protected and preserved in our wild life sanctuaries.

What are endemic species? Chapter 7 - Conservation of Plants and Animals� 3. What is desertification? How can deforestation lead to desertification? How does deforestation lead to reduced soil fertility? What is the reason for global warming?

What Causes Global Warming? Explain how by killing small animals, we are actually harming ourselves. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

Differentiate between wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve. Differentiate between zoo and wildlife sanctuary. Differentiate between endangered and extinct species. Differentiate between flora and fauna. Why should we conserve biodiversity? Why should forests and wildlife be conserved?

Chapter 7 - Conservation of Plants and Animals� 4. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality? Make a list of actions to be taken by you. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter, trees are being continually cut.

Is it justified to cut trees for such projects? Discuss and prepare a brief report. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save paper.

What are the advantages of reforestation? What are the benefits of reforestation? What are the various measures which can be taken to conserve forest and wildlife?

Chapter 7 - Conservation of Plants and Animals� 5. What are the causes and consequences of deforestation? Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following: a Wild animals b Environment c Villages Rural areas d Cities Urban areas e Earth f The next generation.

Chapter 8 - Cell Structure and Functions� 1. What is the basic living unit of an organism? What do chloroplasts contain? Name the instrument used to study cells.

Do animal cells have a cell wall? What is a nucleolus? Name the scientist who coined the term cell. Name one cell in human body which is spherical in shape. Give an example of spherical cell. Which part of a cell controls all the activities of the cell?

Name the outermost layer of an animal cell. What are the units of inheritance in living organisms? What is nucleus? Which is the largest floating body generally in the centre of a cell? What is vacuole? What is tissue? Which cell receives and transfers messages? Name the spindle shaped cells present in the human body. What is the basic similarity among all the living organisms plants and animals? What are prokaryotic cells? What is the layer outside the cell membrane of a plant cell called?

Name the organelle of a plant cell where photosynthesis takes place. Chapter 8 - Cell Structure and Functions� 2. What is the function of nucleus in a cell?

Name the animal cell which is long and has thread like branches. Is it a cell or a group of cells? Name one cell which can be seen by unaided eye. What is an organ? Why nerve cells are long and have branches? What regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell? Name the smallest and largest cell in the world. What is cell wall? What is its function? What advantage does Amoeba derive by changing shape? Name a single cell present in the human body which can change its shape.

Name one organism which has no definite shape, and keeps on changing its shape. Which unicellular organism has no definite shape? Name an organism which changes its shape frequently. How do scientists observe and study the living cells?

What is plastid? What is the name of green plastids present in plant cells? What are the three main parts of the cell? Name two plant organs. What are unicellular organisms? Give two examples. What are pseudopodia in amoeba? What are the functions of pseudopodia? What is a gene? Chapter 8 - Cell Structure and Functions� 3. What are multicellular organisms? Why are plant and animal specimens usually stained with dyes before observing them through a microscope?

Name one stain used for this purpose. Which part of the cell contains organelles? Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function. What is nuclear membrane? State its function. What are the different shapes of cells? Are the cells in an elephant larger than the cells in a rat? Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells? What is the difference between amoeba and white blood cell?

Which part of the cell gives it shape? Does the number of cells in an organism affect its functioning? Chapter 8 - Cell Structure and Functions� 4. What is the function of cell wall in a plant cell? What are the functions of the cell membrane? State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve cells perform? Write short notes on the following: a Cytoplasm b Nucleus of a cell.

Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three differences between them. Chapter 9 - Reproduction in Animals� 1. Name two animals which reproduce asexually.

Which type of reproduction involves gametes? Which type of reproduction does not involve gametes? What is another term for a fertilised egg? Name the reproductive process which involves two parents.

Name the reproductive process which involves one parent. What type of fertilization takes place in hen? Name the organs which produce sperms in human. The Umayyads and the changes introduced by Umayyads in Politics or Administration. The Abbasid Revolution and changes introduced by Abbasids. Between and , European Christians fought wars against Muslim of the eastern Mediterranean to recapture Jerusalem. These wars were later designated as Crusades.

According to some sources Pope Urban II gifted cross to all the Christian soldiers to fight in the war that is why the war was named so. The rubai is a four-line stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised, and the fourth delivers the point. The subject matter of the rubai is unrestricted. Ghazni became the centre of Persian literary life. Mahmud of Ghazni gathered around him a group of poets who composed anthologies and epic poetry.

The most outstanding was Firdausi,who took 30 years to complete the Shahnama Book of Kings , an epic of 50, couplets which has become a masterpiece of Islamic literature. The Shahnama is acollection of traditions and legends which poetically depicts Iran from Creation to the Arab conquest. The catalogue of IbnNadim describes a large number of works written in prose for themoral education and amusement of readers.

The oldest of these is a collection of animal fables called Kalilawa Dimna which is the Arabic translation of the Panchtantra. The most widespread and lasting literary works are the stories of hero-adventurers such as Alexander and Sindbad , or those of unhappy lovers known as Majnun or the Madman.

These have developedover the centuries into oral and written traditions. The Thousand and One Nights is another collection of stories told by a single narrator, Shahrzad , to her husband night after night. The collection was originally in Indo-Persian and was translated into Arabic in Baghdad in the eighth century. From the ninth century onwards, the scope of writing books was expanded to include biographies, manuals of ethics, history and geography.

For rulers and officials, history provided a good record of the glories and achievements of a dynasty as well as examples of the techniques of administration. Art and Architecture in central Islamic land. Roman and Sasanian architecture, were lavishly decorated with sculptures, mosaics and paintings of people.

The rejection of representing living beings in the religious art of Islam promoted two art forms: calligraphy the art of beautiful writing and arabesque geometric and vegetal designs. Small and big inscriptions, usually of religious quotations, were used to decorate architecture. Calligraphic art has been best preserved in manuscripts of the Quran dating from the eighth and ninth centuries.

Literary works were illustrated with miniature paintings. In addition, a wide variety of illumination techniques were introduced to enhance the beauty of a book. Plant and floral designs, based on the idea of the garden, were used in buildings and book illustrations.

History of central Islamic land Semi-historical works, such as biographies, records of the sayings and doings of the Prophet hadith and commentaries on the Quran tafsir are also available. The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports akhbar transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper.

The authenticity of each report was tested by a critical method which traced the chain of transmission and established the reliability of the narrator. Christian chronicles , written in Syriac are fewer but they throw interesting light on the history of early Islam. Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies, travelogues and literary works, such as stories and poems. The Arabs were divided into tribes each led by a chief whowas chosen partly on the basis of his family connections but more forhis personal courage, wisdom and generosity.

Each tribehad its own god or goddess , who was worshipped as an idol ina shrine. Many Arab tribes were nomadic Bedouins , movingfrom dry to green areas oases of the desert in search of food and fodder for their camels.

Even tribes outside Mecca considered the Kaba holy and installed their own idols at this shrine, making annual pilgrimages to the shrine. Mecca was located on the crossroads Around , Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah alone should be worshipped.

The worship involved simple rituals, such asdaily prayers, and moral principles, such as distributing alms and abstaining from theft. A date in the Hijri calendar is followed by the letters AH. The Hijri year is a lunar year of days , 12 months Muharram to DhulHijja of 29 or 30 days. Each day begins at sunset and each month with the sighting of the crescent moon. The Hijri year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year.

Therefore, none of the Islamic religious festivals, including the Ramazan fast, Id and hajj , corresponds in any way to seasons. As a result, his political authority was transferred to the close friends of Ph.

Muhammad elder Muslims with no established principle of succession. This created opportunity for innovations. The biggest innovation was the creation of the institution of caliphate , in which the leader of the community became the deputy or khalifa of the Prophet. The first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali justified their powers on the basis of their close association with the Prophet and continued his work under the general guidelines he had provided.

The twin objectives of the caliphate were a to retain control over the tribes constituting the community. To raise resources for the state. The first caliph, Abu Bakr, suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns. He realised that rich booty could be obtained from expeditionary raids, the caliph and his military commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquered lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and the SasanianEmpire in the east.

Military strategy, religious fervor and the weakness of the opposition contributed to the success of the Arabs. Uthman The third caliph,Uthman, to extend the control to Central Asia. Within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the Arab-Islamic state controlled the vastterritory between the Egypt and Afghanistan. The third caliph, Uthman also a Quraysh by birth. He packed his administration with his own men to secure greater control. This further intensified the Meccan character of the state and the conflict with the other tribesmen.

Opposition in Iraq and Egypt, combined with opposition in Medina , led to the assassination ofUthman. The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali fought two wars against those who represented the Meccan aristocracy.

He was not able to suppress the faction led by Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman and the governor of Syria. Soon after, Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in a mosque at Kufa. After his death, his followers paid allegiance to his son, Hussain, and his descendants. Muawiya made himself the next caliph in , founding the Umayyad dynasty which lasted till What Administrative changes were introduced by the Caliphs in the newly conqured territories In all the conquered provinces, the caliphs imposed a new administrative structure headed by governors and tribal chieftains.

The central treasury obtained its revenue from taxes paid by Muslims as well as its share of the booty from raids.

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