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Filipiak missed pieces 35 and 86, but there are only 3 uses of 35 among the solid burrs, and few of All of the pieces in his set highlighted like this are used in only 6 of his burrs!
In August , I found the following on auction - it appeared to me to be a set of burr pieces, but the seller had assumed that the entire set would be used to construct one large puzzle - no documentation was included. The pieces bear hand-pencilled numbers on their ends, ranging from 1 to 38, and there are 90 pieces. Once I received the set, took inventory, and examined the piece shapes and numbering, it became evident that this is in fact a set of Filipiak's pieces , using his numbering scheme.
I wonder who made them, following Filipiak's instructions? Whoever it was did a pretty accurate job. There are only a few discrepancies: piece 18 is supposed to map to ID , but is instead a copy of piece 9 which equals ID barbells The two copies of piece 10 should map to ID , but they are offset so actually are - this faithfully follows the error in Filipiak piece 24 is supposed to be , but is instead which does not match the Filipiak diagram.
The seller obtained the set at a flea market in Virginia but unfortunately could say nothing else of its provenance. They were supplied in a crude oblong cardboard box, shown first above - I fashioned a slightly less crude and more convenient cardboard container for the set, with internal separators, shown next. The pieces appear to be made from walnut. I am able to construct many burrs using this set, including the complexly-notched Tenyo Brother, since in effect a is supplied.
Sadly, however, due to the flaws mentioned above, there are several among Filipiak's 73 burrs that cannot be constructed using this set.
Still, it is cool to have come into possession of some past puzzler's treasure - it must have taken quite some effort to craft all these pieces - chisel marks can be seen in the finely carved notches.
I wonder how many other readers of Filipiak's book actually went to the trouble to make the set of burr pieces for which he evinced so much enthusiasm? My Catalogue of Burrs to Try This section gives a list of burrs to try once you have a set or can make your own pieces, for example from LiveCube or Lego. I've included solid and holey designs. There are several sources that give the full list of all solid burrs that can be produced with the set of 42 notchable pieces, including Slocum and Botermans' Puzzles Old and New.
That list of puzzles contains multiple entries for a set of six pieces when that set can go together in different ways, so there are not actually unique six-piece sets. I have folded all the sets represented by those puzzles into my list. I have tried to catalogue interesting puzzles I've run across and give their names or designers when I know them.
The catalog below is ordered by piece number - with the six pieces sorted by number, lowest first. Mirror pair pieces are listed together. I have color-coded the pieces per my guide tables above, to try to make it easier to see how the designs may be related. In the notes accompanying the puzzles I have used various colors to highlight particular puzzles as follows Pieces highlighted in this color are from the table of additional pieces.
If a burr's piece list does not contain any pieces highlighted like this, then it most likely can be constructed using the set of 42 notchable pieces.
The four common designs Among the oldest documented The 16 designs from Arthur L. Mentioned on Bruno Curfs' site Ranked easiest by Curfs You might use these to introduce a beginner or a child to this category. Incidentally, Curfs, Coffin, and Cutler rate Cutler's as the most difficult of the notchable solid burrs. Jurg von Kanel designs Peter Roesler's designs David Winkler's designs Keiichiro Ishino's designs Ishino offers extensive analysis of the six-piece burr as well as many other puzzles , giving catalogues of pieces and of designs.
He lists many of the puzzles listed here, too. Anyway, herewith my list, also "collected the world over! They're just there to provide a count of the number of entries in my list. Patent - Levinson May be the earliest known burr, depicted in a book by Pablo Minguet y Irol b. Appeared as the "Small Devil's Hoof" in a catalogue. Professional Puzzle set 3 1 , 52 , , x3 - Filipiak 5 - 1 solution; compare to Wyatt 11 1 , 52 , or , , x2 - 1 soln. This one is very easy BC 2. Any burr using 2x is easier than most - adding 2x makes it somewhat trivial.
See diagram on p. I have seen this called " The Cross of Marseille. Also appeared as the "Locked Cross" from New Zealand. Also see U. Patent - Senyk Louis Vuitton Le Pateki puzzle maple, sycamore. Zhongwai xifa tu shuo: e huan huibian Chinese and Western magic with diagrams: compilation of magic - Shanghai, 1 , x3 , x2 - The Diabolical Structure - possibly the easiest BC 1. Patent - Hime , for these on a string. Patent - Brown Not too tough.
Why did they both include it? Also, a large solid burr I played with at George Hart's house. A nice 3x3 slide. An old one sold as "The Zoozzler. The only burr at the highest level, There are 89 ways to put it together, but most of them don't achieve level One of the "Fearsome Four.
Single level 5. Patent - Kramariuk This one works with the Wayne Daniel set and has nice dead-ends. Works with the Wayne Daniel set. NOTE: I had previously listed piece , but Aaron Siegel pointed out to me that it is equivalent to , in this case via a degree rotation about the z axis, then a 90 degree rotation towards you about the x axis. NOTE: I had listed as the lowest piece, but Aaron Siegel pointed out to me that equals , via a transform of about the z axis, then 90 degrees away from you about the x axis.
All of these pieces are actually notchable. Use length-8 pieces. Maybe the hardest burr overall? NOTE: In lieu of , I had previously listed piece , but Aaron Siegel pointed out to me that it is equivalent to , in this case via a degree rotation about the z axis, then a 90 degree rotation towards you about the x axis. Aaron also pointed out that should instead be , which has the cubie at position 16 removed.
This revised piece set is also consistent with the description of M6 having one less cubie than CCU10 - piece has one less cubie than Theory The recent history of discovery related to the burr puzzle seems to me like the history of world exploration - at first, the "known world" was small and encompassed some well-traveled areas, beyond which lay either the "edge of the world" for those who thought they had seen all the burrs and only "a few" remained to be found , or a "terra incognita" that stretched off into the hazy distance.
Decades, perhaps even centuries, of exploration served to extend the frontiers of what was known, with some impressive voyages of exploration by intrepid souls using relatively primitive technology. But it was not until the computer age and Bill Cutler that a "satellite view" became available, delimiting the "globe" and showing its full extent - 35 billion assemblies.
Most of that area is "water" - assemblies that cannot be constructed. The "Old World" of the solid burrs stretches across , assemblies, and features many well-known cities and well-traveled routes.
Cutler's satellite view has identified several impressive peaks in the larger world beyond, and much ground remains unexplored. Are the burr pioneers really "inventors? In particular I have been interested in finding high-level holey burrs that can be made with the notchable set, at length 6.
Bruno Curfs has utilized computer analysis performed by Keiichiro Ishino, and makes several output files available at his site. Bruno mentions and discusses several burrs already. Its pieces have the numeric IDs: , , , x2 , This burr does not have a unique solution, so it does not, based on what I've seen, get a lot of attention.
It has six solutions, the highest at level 7, and does not have any level-1 solution. Of burrs made with the length-6 notchable set, there are only 15 assemblies that can achieve level-7, and Tumult is the one with the fewest assemblies. In all six of its solutions, three of the pieces retain the same orientation.
The orientations of the other three pieces determine the different solutions and level. This puzzle actually messes up Jurg's applet, which reports a spurious level-9 solution.
The mechanism reminds me of a simple lock - I really like it. It has one level 4. It has two level-5 solutions, which differ by only the orientation of one piece. If you start with 6 Y pieces and make one key piece, you use up 10 of the 20 "floating" interior cubies.
The "core" shown here is then composed of the 10 interior cubies that remain to be distributed among the other 5 pieces. Imagine that the key piece goes into the page resting on the plane formed by the core cubies labeled 4,5,6, and 7. The other 5 pieces would start as instances of the "minimal" piece Y , and acquire some share of the 10 cubies of the core. Note that no single piece can have all 10 - this would result in a second key piece, which some reflection should convince you doesn't work.
I have chosen an arbitray orientation for the other 5 pieces, which I'll call P1 through P5, resulting in the particular core shape shown. Other shapes are possible. Imagine P1 through P5, oriented around the core as follows. P1 is vertical on the left; the 2-cubie notch of P1 fits on 1 and 3, and its "arms" face right. P2 is vertical on the right; the 2-cubie notch of P2 fits on 2 and 8, and its "arms" face left. P5 is horizontal, into the page below the key piece, and fits on 9 and 10, with its arms facing up.
P3 is horizontal across the page in front, with the notch upwards and the arms facing the rear. P4 is horizontal across the page in the rear, with its notch upwards and its arms facing the front. The following chart shows how the floating pieces might be distributed, converting P1 through P5 into pieces other than Y.
Note that cubies 1 and 3 must be allocated as a pair. Because if they are split up, it results in some pieces which are not notachable.
Likewise for the pairs 2 and 8, and 9 and P5 plus none 5 7 5,7 9,10 4,5,9,10 6,7,9,10 4,5,6,7,9,10 equals Y W X V J I H Note that, given the chosen orientation, P5 cannot include 4 or 6 without including 9 and 10 - they would be hanging off in space unsupported. So, what's wrong with this analysis? It gives an incomplete list of possible pieces for P5! It is a consequence of my original arbitrary orientation of the Y pieces.
P5 has access to two additional cubies on each end, provided two things happen: either P1 or P2 must be reversed so its notch is on the other side either P3 or P4 but not both must be piece M P5 plus none 5 7 5,7 9,10 4,5,9,10 6,7,9,10 4,5,6,7,9,10 equals Y W X V J I H plus 2 equals Q or U S P not possible G E not possible The two extras have to be taken on the same side the M piece will be placed - they cannot come one from each side since that results in internal corners again.
This is only possible due to the symmetric nature of piece M, which allows its crossbar to be fitted inboard of where crossbars normally go. If you try this with my LiveCube pieces described above, some of the yellow "internal" cubies of the M piece will show on the outside due to the necessary rotation.
For puzzles using the key piece A, piece M can never appear more than once. All require an M. There are only 5 other configurations that use M - these do not require its rotation. All are very easy.
One would assume, the more floating cubies used by P5, the fewer associated configurations. There are only 4 AH configurations, as follows. The I piece used 4 out of 10, leaving 6. And that leaves the configurations that don't use the key piece 1. Traditional piece Burrs This section is about the "Traditional" piece Burr. This type of burr can be visualized as having a 6-piece burr shape at its core, but instead of 2x2x2 pieces crossing, it has 6x6x6.
Each group of 6 pieces along an axis is arranged in a 2x3 block. The minimum length of a piece is 8 units - pieces are typically 2x2x8. Willem van der Poel seems to have designed the first piece 6x6x6 burr, in - this type of burr is a much more recent development than the Traditional 6-piece Burr. In this case, "traditional" refers to the canonical 6x6x6 shape rather than hinting at any deep history. Other shapes or arrangements of 18 pieces are possible.
Van der Poel's burr is known as the Grandfather 6x6x6 piece burr. The Grandfather burr is discussed on Pete Roesler's site , where you can read a brief history written by van der Poel. Willem made a copy by hand from Beech wood - that copy is now in Jerry Slocum's collection. Willem's design is level 3. Ishino has a catalogue of length-8 pieces here. Ishino also has a selection of piece burr designs , and a table of some designs, listed with piece codes. The burr diagrams used below are Ishino's.
As discussed in the section on Traditional 6-piece Burrs, Bill Cutler completely analyzed those. However, as of this writing in Feb.
Its pieces are length Maybe designed by Gillett as noted in this thread on the PuzzleWorld forums? Frans de Vreugd is a notable collector with an interest in high-level burrs - Frans has published nice articles on the topic in CFF 80 Nov.
At the higher levels, even disassembly is a challenge. Re-assembly without instructions becomes almost impossible. Guillaume Largounez posted an interesting account of his attempts to construct and solve the most difficult 18 piece burrs, at the PuzzleWorld Forums. His conclusions are in this post. Some quotes from Guillaume: "Most of these puzzles propose a disassembling challenge only.
The puzzle is given assembled, and the goal is to find the way to take the pieces apart. In all these puzzles, the Building A Wooden Ship Model 95 sequence of moves is not trivial. This is not 'one move allows the next one, that allows the next one etc. A random exploration of possibilities may be enough to find the solution of the disassembling challenge, but not always.
It is something similar both to labyrinths, and chess game. Like in labyrinths, you explore paths, with crossings, where you have to choose between two or more ways to go on, without knowing which is the right one. Some ways seem to bring you closer to the exit, but things are not always what they seem. You find many dead ends, and must go back in order to try another ways. Sometimes, after a long way, you realize that you are back in the position that you already were before.
And sometimes, when you feel lost, this is like a chess game. Goetz says, "Level and above puzzles are very difficult even with a BurrTools solution at hand.
These high-level puzzles have so many internal voids and intermediate states that tend to make moves by themselves that you can easily get lost in the solution. This can also help make reassembly tractable. It should be acknowledged that some folks don't enjoy higher-level puzzles, since solving starts to seem like too much work.
Also, some folks believe it is inelegant to resort to coloring or marking pieces to exclude low-level solution assemblies. The simplest piece is arguably x00FFFF.
The earliest designs e. Grandfather, Lovely are composed of a core 6-piece burr, surrounded by a "cage" of relatively simple pieces, usually x00FFFF. The animation shown here illustrates the core 6-piece burr and how it is surrounded by a cage of 12 additional pieces. Of course, what makes each design unique will be the piece notchings and how they fit together.
According to Ishino, in Paul Blake designed a level 4. I entered the traditional piece burr shape into BurrTools, along with 18 copies of the x00FFFF piece - the run finished very quickly in only 1.
My run gave assemblies, of which are solutions. The highest level found was 4. Puzzle Goh Pit Khiam Puzzle Jan Naert Level is the highest at the time of this writing, October The higher-level puzzles following Phoenix Cabracan are based off of it. The 87 first moves are exactly identical they are both variants of the Phoenix Cabracan. Very nice fit, with smooth slack-free movement. At level , this is the world's current highest-level piece burr, made for me by one of its designers!
I acquired an instance of Willem van der Poel's The Grandfather of 6x6x6 , made by Pelikan, in an auction from Stewart Coffin's collection. Willem's exchange puzzle at IPP Includes a sheet with the year history of the puzzle and instructions.
See it at Ishino's site. I also have a rough handmade copy but I don't know who made it. This copy has one piece that differs from van der Poel's design - instead of piece "G" there is another "H. The Dalloz Urdin is the same. You can see solutions at Les Casse-Tete de Chantal. I received this large example of the van der Poel burr as part of a group of wooden puzzles. I don't know who the craftsman is. A couple of pieces are slightly different from the official design, but the assembly sequence is the same.
Here is a wooden "traditional" piece burr from France. It is a fairly simple construction, and it is not a copy of van der Poel's Grandfather Burr.
It is from a company called Grandjouan Great Toys and according to various sources, including the solution sheet that came with my example, the burr is called Damier. Unfortunately no source I found has identified the designer or its date of production. In addition, the name "Damier" has been applied to several different puzzles. Damier is listed at Puzzle Will Be Played. Blogger Pierre Letouzey describes his experience solving this burr.
The Damier burr and its solution are shown at the Casse-tete et Solution website. It is number 1. A design by Bruce Love called the Lovely Burr. Level Only 1 solution.
You might find one at Bill Cutler's website. Brian Pletcher blogged about this puzzle. Coming of Age Mk. II - Mr. Puzzle Australia An piece 6x6x6 burr designed by Brian Young, without the use of a computer.
There are multiple solutions - the highest level is It was analysed using BurrTools by Andreas Roever and he found a level That makes 65 moves for complete disassembly. Here is a YouTube video of Brian assembling this burr. Here is a YouTube video of a level Here is another YouTube video, of a level Brian gives the following statistics based on Andreas' analysis: Highest first level is There are 2 such solutions, very similar.
Both take 46 moves to disassemble. Other high level solutions exist at level 16, level Brian prefers 2 solutions with level Puzzle Australia Level 62 Only 1 solution, respecting the color scheme. The Dragon Burr - a burr having 18 unique pieces. From Creative Crafthouse.
Rated as one of their most difficult puzzles. Level 1. I obtained this in a trade with French puzzler Guillaume Largounez.
Tiros requires moves to get the first piece out! Guillaume suggests, "If you want to turn mad someone who owns a copy of the Tiros burr, disassemble it until pieces J and K are out, swap them, and rebuild the whole puzzle without the piece G it can't fit if J and K are swapped. If the way Burrtools gets pieces J and K out is the shortest, solving the puzzle back to its assembled configuration should take moves.
Burrly Sane for Extreme Puzzlers - designed and made by Jack Krijnen For a while was the record holder for highest level traditional piece burr, at Creative Crafthouse sells this one as their 18 Pc. Burr 2. No internal holes. Offered by Arjeu circa Pieces shown in photo.
Here is a link to the solution in a French puzzle forum. Here is a link to a solution video on YouTube , and another in lower resolution. Van der Poel wrote that Pierlot designed 3 versions with no internal holes.
I read on the PuzzleWorld Forums that another is called "Tricolore. Burrloon pieces I don't have this puzzle. Phoenix Cabracan pieces I don't have this puzzle. Century burr - an piece burr at level , designed by Jack Krijnen, produced with Jack's permission by Colin Gaughran. It looks innocent enough, but judging by the internals, it is not your typical piece burr! It is made from Walnut, by Jerry McFarland. I obtained a copy at Eureka Puzzles.
Vertigo from Pentangle is also not quite "traditional" internally. The diagonal burr puzzle can be made from 6 identical pieces, each having two notches, but sometimes appears with a key piece that really isn't necessary.
The earliest relevant U. Also see - Ford Hollywood CA. The plastic "Lady" burr shown later on is another example. This clever version of the diagonal burr is called Insoma. It has a hollow center in which a Soma Cube must be constructed simultaneously with the burr, since all but one of the Soma pieces are connected to the burr pieces! Designed and made by Mr. These are examples of the Diagonal Star.
It can be derived from the diagonal burr by beveling the ends of each of the pieces. After the traditional six-piece burr, I would say this is one of the best-known and most widely manufactured designs. The earliest patent seems to be Swiss - CH - Iffland ; Iffland's design includes the unnecessary key piece. Clever variations exist where the inside is hollow, forming a cubic cavity.
The shape is formally known as the first stellation of the rhombic dodecahedron. See Steven Dutch's site for a nice explanation of stellations of polyhedra. The rhombic dodecahedron also has a second and third stellation. The nice wooden version on the left was a gift from Arteludes thanks! It was issued by Executive Games Inc. Check out Lee's Etsy shop Pacific Puzzleworks. Six unconventional pieces form a conventional diagonal star.
This copy purchased from Allen has a Walnut box and updated puzzle list. The set contains all possible seven different piece types that can be used to construct a traditional diagonal star puzzle, labeled A through G.
Based on analysis by Bill Cutler, there are 52 possible puzzles. Sadly, there is no construction that uses six different piece types. The Diagonal Burr can also be made from rounded or cylindrical pieces, and the tips of the pieces can be rounded off or otherwise shaped as well. This is called the "Asteroid" from Bits and Pieces.
It has the same internal structure as the diagonal burr, but the pieces have been rounded off on the outside. It's not very precisely made, so it doesn't hold together very well. This is The Ball by Charles O. The brass pieces are cylindrical, with curved ends. The notches are cylindrical, too. It relies on a small spring-loaded ball-bearing and a corresponding detent to hold the key piece in place.
I found an acrylic version, too the MoMA shop used to sell it. Fortunately they're not live rounds. This was an advertising premium at a gun show.
Skor Mor's Log Jam - this is a rounded version of the diagonal burr. There was a brown plastic version, too, called Stumpa 1. Packed in its own aluminum briefcase. This is the Sequential Star by Lee Krasnow. It is the "little brother" to his Barcode Burr. Lee has incorporated a sequential opening mechanism into the traditional diagonal star, making this a much more interesting puzzle. Each of the six burr pieces is composed of three units - a center unit and two end units - held together by stainless steel alignment pins and strong neodymium magnets.
If undue pressure is applied to the puzzle in the wrong way, a piece can "burst" into its components - but it is easily re-assembled with no harm done. The end units are made of Macassar Ebony and are precision cut to beautifully sharp edges and points. Lee hooked up a CNC feed to his sled and the cuts were made on his table saw under computer control.
The center units are made of a kitchen countertop material called Richlite - a sort of plastic-infused paper, which is climate-stable and machines nicely. Each end unit contains a peg that rides in grooves cut in the center units of adjacent pieces. The groove patterns are carefully contrived so as to dictate a particular sequence of moves through which you must navigate the six burr pieces in coordination, until the assembly finally can be slid apart into two 3-burr halves.
The grooves were cut using Lee's CNC milling machine. It has 24 pieces. My copy is fairly small, and I do not know who the craftsman is. Kumiki Puzzles Kumiki puzzles appear in neither Catel's catalog of nor in Bestelmeier's catalog of - both of which include only the interlocking Small Devil's Hoof a traditional six-piece burr and Wooden Model Ship Building Videos 60 the Large Devil's Hoof a cage-style burr.
Cleverwood now defunct had a nice write-up about Kumiki puzzles. Here is a link to John Childs' extensive Kumiki collection. Frank Potts has a wonderful Kumiki collection. Kumiki puzzles are usually inexpensive, and made from unfinished Japanese Magnolia "Ho" wood - but modern versions have appeared in plastic. I group into this category any puzzle with a characteristic 2-piece T-shaped key, but there are four distinct sub-categories: Oshi - push the key piece out Mawashi - twisting key piece Kendon - remove a piece by moving up and down or left and right Sayubiki - simultaneously remove two key pieces The Kumiki Cube, Sphere, and Barrel Perhaps the most commonplace Kumiki puzzle is the classic piece Cube.
The related Sphere and Barrel puzzles share the same basic internal architecture though they have different external shapes.
Other truncations of the cube have appeared. These curved pieces give the Ball burr its interesting shape, but do not in general add to the complexity of the assembly other than posing a dexterity challenge.
Since a six-piece burr resides inside, not only can the Ball burrs differ in appearance due to varied outlier shapes but they can also employ different burrs at their cores.
It also appears in the Johnson Smith Catalog where it is unglamorously called No. I also found an image of an original instruction sheet on which it is called the Fireman's Standard. A vintage plastic example of the Kumiki interlocking Ball burr. The Kumiki Cage Burr The Kumiki Cage Burr employs twelve interlocking bars to form a cubic cage - often a simple wooden sphere is trapped inside. The solution entails finding bars that rotate in place to align with the notches in adjacent bars, thus freeing those bars to be removed.
Besides the traditional Kumiki wooden versions, this design has appeared in plastic versions as well: Trickstix by Harris - see U. Patent - Harris - and the Adams' Locked Blocks puzzle. Here is an example of an extended cage burr - in this case extended linearly into three sections.
A ball can be enclosed in each section. Assembling this from scratch can be fairly challenging - even using the accompanying instructions is of limited help since they are drawn so unclearly. Kumiki Figural Puzzles Shackman Clown - part of a fairly rare set of figures. Shackman Man in a Vest - part of a fairly rare set of figures.
I have a similar puzzle, also in its box, but with a different label and appearance. A comparison photo is included. Sombrero Man - I am unaware of the provenance of this puzzle.
It is similar to the puzzles in the Shackman Clown series, but Jerry Slocum has kindly checked his extensive collection of vintage Shackman catalogs and cannot find any reference to these. Frank Potts believes they were made in Germany - he has a similar puzzle - an accordion-playing sailor. Jerry Slocum believes these were made in Mexico. Soccer Man - I am unaware of the provenance of this puzzle. It is similar to the puzzles in the Shackman Clown series Kumiki Cigar-Smoking Man - may have been made in Germany You can see further examples of different figures at Frank Potts' website.
Kumiki Pagodas Two large and one small. With instruction sheet on very flimsy paper. Kumiki City Hall, with instruction sheet. A Kumiki Pyramid. I bought this burr in Japan. It is made by the Yamanaka Kumiki Works. It is the "Masu Model. This Kumiki Elephant is based on the Kumiki Sphere. Wooden Universal Puzzle Set - a vintage set of three space-themed Kumiki puzzles Complete with box and instruction sheets.
Kumiki Battleship Of the Kumiki ships I have, I think this one has the most interesting architecture. Kumiki Cruiser - a classic vintage puzzle from Japan. Longer Kumiki Cruiser - note the lack of side panels. For short others define layout as the process of transferring the building plan measurements to the 9round of the site.
Stake -are wooden sticks used as posts sharpened at one end -driven int o the ground to serve as boundaries or support of t he batter boa rds.
Batter board -wood stick or board nailed horizontally at the stake which serves as the horizontal plane where the reference point of bu ilding measurements are established. String -is either plastic chord or ga lvan ized wire across the batter board used to indicate the outline of the building wall and foundation. Before the construction begins see to it that a Building Permit is first secured from the locaJ authorities concerned. The amount that you are Building A Wooden Ship Model Guide Pdf supposed to sav. Step It is suggested that lhe relocation of the property line shall be done by a Geodetic Engineer specially for those.
Step 3. Clear the site of any existi ng structures, trees ana other elements that will obstruct the construction work. Cutting of trees shall be limited only to those that will hinder the progress of the work but don't forget to consult the local forestry authority.
Step 4. Construct and allocate a space for laborers' quarters, construction office, bodega for the materials and working tools and temporary waste disposal. On the contrary, if the site is l imited to t he area occupied by the structure, an off-site preparation, storaging and batching of conc;:rete is inevitable.
Apply for a temporary connections of electric and water supply. Electric current is important for the power needs of the tools and equipment and is necessary on overtime schedules especially in the time of concreting. Step 6. Construct a temporary fence around the construction.
Step 7. Order the construction materials that are sufficient for the working force to accomplish in a week period. Insufficient supply of construction materials increases the overhead cost. Verify Figure Step 9. Fix the batter board to its horizontal position with the aid of a level instrument preferably plastic hose with.
Usually, the batter board is aligned with the ground floor elevation. The important points in the plan such as post distances and wall cor-. Most if not all building plans are parallel with the fronting street, the setback of the building from the road is first verified from the plan and is marked as the reference line where to start the measurement. Establish the. The use of transit instrument is preferred for a large construction but is seldom used on small and medium projects.
The use of small square in layouting is not advisable because it will always result to big errors. Excavation for a small construction with independent wall. SO meter and about half a meter depth for the wall footing.
It is a common concept that excavation is simple as digging the soil after the final marking of the building out I ine has been established on the ground. Unfortunately, there are factors that should be considered in the process which when overlooked might result to waste of materials and labor in the process of correcting and adjusting the work.
The topographical condition of the ground plays an important role in excavation work. Consequently, the succeeding work such as setting the reinforcements, forms and concreting followed by the block laying will meet no problem of adjustment and correction. When the site is sloped' or a rolling ground, there are problems that are most likely to arise: It has been observed that most of. Another method is the use of stepped or sloped wall footing where excavation follows gradually with the slope of the ground.
Building construction that requires wide excavation or total extraction of the soil are classified into two categories depending upon the condition or location of the site. The constru'ction progress could be seen immediately. Bu ilding construction on a b. The manner of excavation to be employed which will not affect or damage the adjoining 'structure. The kind of equipment to be used in digging and extracting the ground may not be a problem but the place where to station the equipment during the operation.
Manual digging Is very costly and time consuming, but sometimes could not be avoided if the situation does not warrant the use of power equipment. How and where to dispose the extracted soil involves the effective manner of maneuvering the payloader and dump:.
Where to dispose the underground water to be drained by the water pump during the process of construction which might cause muddy road and create inconvenience to traffic. The kind of sheeting and bracing to be used in shoring or under.
Sheeting and bracing are the solutions. The Building. Code on the protection of adjo ining property provides: "Any person making or causing excavation to be made below existing grade shall protect the excavation so that the soil of adjoining property will not cave-in or settle and shall defray the cost of underpinning or extending the foundation of buildings on adjoining properties.
The owners of the adjoining properties shall be given access to the excavation for the purpose of verifying if their pl'operties are sufficiently protected by the person making the excavation. If the necessary consent is not accorded to the person making the excavation, then it shall be the duty of the person refusing such perm ission to protect his 'building or structure, The person causing the excavation shall not be responsible for damages on account of such refusal by the adjoining owner to permit access for inSpection.
Excavation involves the removal and. Changes in stress is always associated with deformation in the same manner as excavation is always accompanied by movements which contribute to the tendency of settlement which could be minimized by the proper application of sheeting and bracing enumerated as follows The lateral pressure in the material adjacent to the excavation could be reduced materially by means of a.
The common practice is to drive vertical planks called sheeting around the property line of the proposed excavation. The sheeting and bracing should be strong enough and capable of resisting latera l pressure.
The depth of the sheeting shal l be maintained below the bottom of the hole as the excavation progresses. The sheeting shall be supported by horizontal beam called wales supported by horizontal struts extending from side to side of the excavation, if the excavation is too wide for the struts.
The most effective way of prevent ing lateral movement of the soil rs oy prestressing the bracing or struts. The methods of sheeting and bracing a deep excavation to be discussed under this topic is not independent from that which was previously explained under sheeting for shallow excavation but rather a continuation and improvement of the methods, application of new materials and approach. The use of timber sheeting on excavation that exceeds 4 to 5 meters depth is generally uneconomical; instead, steel sheet piles are driven along the property line of the excavation.
The wales and struts are inserted as the soil is removed from the site. Steel sheet piles are driven down to a meter length below the bed of the excavation to prevent local heaves, this embedment of steel sheet below the excavation bed sometimes eliminate the use of struts to support the lower portion of the sheeting.
The use of H pile is sometimes employed, driven along the property line of the excavation spaced at 1. The H piles are sometimes called soldier pile, installed with their flange parallel with the side of the excavation.
Horizontal wood board called lagging are inserted as the soil next to the pile is removed. As excavation advances from one level to another, wales and struts are inserted in the same manner as that of the steel sheeting..
There are instances where the central portion of the site is excavated to its final depth and then part of the permanent foundation is constructed. This structure then serves as the support for the inclined bracing or rakers when the remaining soil is excavated.
OIL Figure 6. Ahother method that is sometimes employed is the cross-lot bracing or inclined struts method called tieback. LE VE1. Flat web b. Tests have been conducted and results show that settlement of the adjacent ground in large excavation does not exceed about 0. The water springs carry the materials into the excavation grain by grain that might produce a tunnel beneath the slightly cohesive layer that when sufficiently enlarged causes the roof to give way and the water above subside to form into a sink hole that may extend to a considerable distance from the edge of the excavation.
The water level in the sump should be maintained at the lowest elevation; otherwise, wet sand becomes readily active in swallowing up any heavy object resting on it. When springs sprout out, the sand will start to boil; the slope will slough or drop off and the entire base of the excavation might slope upward and the ditches around the edge of the excavation that emerge near the toe of the slope will cause the bank to collapse.
The methods and processes of pumping is a matter of importance. Sufficient equipment is necessary just from the beginning of the work to guarantee the efficient removal of water without the necessity of making additions or alterations during the process. Inadequate pumping capacity wil! Large cut and deep excavation in soft clay develops lateral forces in the subsoil due to the weight of the earth surrounding the edge of the excavation which becomes a surcharge or additional pecuniary load, and if the depth of the cut becomes so great that the bearing capacity of the soil below the sides is reached, vibration and large movement become inevitable irrespective of the care which the sides may be shored or braced.
The movement could only be decreased by driving piles around the cut braced by struts or the use of metal sheeting. If the lateral pressure is so great that metal sheeting could not withstand it.
Shoringis the process of providing temporary supports to the. If the construction requires bracing of the excavations aside from the forms necessary for the concrete work, less materials will be needed for the continuous.
If it is very weak it is sometimes displaced by advancing the fill from one direction to another so that a mud wave is progressibly swept across the site. The most suitable materials for filling on building sites are well graded sand and gravel but it is considered costly. Fills are placed in layers usually not thicker than.
Filling materials are often dumped into the enclosure. This procedure although still widely used should not be permitted.. In cohesive backfill, it inevitably leads to weakenina and softening of the soil and to future loss ot support and subsidence 6. Clay with high swelling potential should be avoided as fill beneath foundations or fill to support floors. If the soil dries. If the moistu re content increases, floors will crack thereby creating lateral forces on foundation walls.
If there is no alternative material except the swelling clay for filling it is better to compact the materials somewhat with more water than at t he optimum moisture content because the effect of swelling is more damaging than those of shrinkage.
Treatment is necessary. The addition of lime may also be beneficial in improving the workability of clay and silts. It also reduces the plasticity of the d ay. Portland cement is seldom used fo r such a purpose because it is less effective in reducing the free water content of the soil although it may enhance strength in the clay later. Concrete in which reinforcement is embedded in sueh a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces is called Reinforced Concrete.
The early strength portland cement is another type of portland cement which is often recommended in constructions that requires an early high strength such as road concreting or building construction in time of lower temperature. This type of cement is somewhat costly but reaches its strength in 3 to 7 days compared to t he 7 to 28 days strength of ordinary portland cement.
Aggregates are classified as fine and coarse that forms into concrete when bound together into a conglomerate mass. Fine Aggregatethe materials smaller than 9 mm.
Coarse Aggregatethe materials over 9 mm. Water to be used for prestressed concrete or concrete which will contain aluminum embedments, shall be free from deleterious amounts of chloride-ion. Conditions for maximum size of coarse aggregate 1. It shall easily fit into the forms and in-between reinforcing bars. Heavyweight concrete 2. Medium stone concrete Lightweight concreteis classified into three types depending upon the kind of aggregates used in mixing, which predetermines their weight.
Low density concreteis employed for insulation t--purposes whose unit weight rarely exceeds 50 pounds per cubic foot or kgjm3 72 b. Moderate-strength concretewith unit weight from to kg. The contents. The mixer shall be rotated at a speed recommended by the manufacturer and mixing shall be continued for at least 1 Yz minutes after all materials are in the. Ready-mixed conaete. The concrete mixture from batching plant is most preferred, because the proportion of the materials such as cement and i!
Qgregates are controlled by weight through a manual or automatic scale connected to the hoppers. Water is also batched either by a measuring tank or by water meter. The use of Ready-Mix concrete is suitable and convenient for constructions done in a congested city condition. Experienced builders have proven the Ready-mixed concrete to be more economical than the job-mixing processes. The Ready-mixed concrete is batched in a stationary plant then hauled to the site in any of the following manner Mixed completely then hauled by truck agitator.
Transit mixed-batched at the plant then mixed in a truck mixer. Partially mixed at plant and completed in a truck mixer. The Bui lding Code specifies -"Concrete shall be conveyed from the mixer to the place of final deposit by methods which will prevent the separation or loss of materials.
Conveying equipment shall be capable of providing a supply of concrete at the site of placement without separation of ingredients and without interruptions sufficient to permit loss of plasticity between successive increments.
Conveying of concrete mixture is done by either:Preparatton of equipment and depositing: Concrete mixing requires prior adequate preparation of equipment and materials for the activities. Depositing of Concrete. Depositing of concrete shall be made as early as practicable in its final place to avoid segregation of particles due to rehandling or flowing.
All concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated by suitable means during placement and shall be thoroughly worked. Wet straw or hay on top of the slab continuously wet.
Continuous sprinkling of water on the slab surface. Avoid early removal of forms; this will permit undue evaporation of moisture in the concrete. The Building Code on Curing so provides-" All admixture added to concrete serves as water repellent, coloring agent, increase workability, accelerate or retard the setting, harden its surface etc.
The Code on admixture specifies "The admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining essentially the same composition and performance throughout the work as the product used in establishing concrete proportions.
Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used in prestressed concrete or in concrete containing aluminum embedments if their use will produce a deleterious concentration of chloride-ion in the mixing water. The philosophy behind in establishing the proportion of fine and coarse aggregate is to create a solid mass where cement paste enters the voids of the fine aggregate and in turn fill the void of the coarse aggregate Theoretically, concrete proportion shows that sand is always one half the volume of gravel, for instance, 1 : 2 : 4 means 1 bag cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel is the proportion for Class A concrete.
Another way of expressing such proportion is 1 : 6 which simply means that for every bag cement, 6 parts of fine and coarse aggregate forms a class A mixture. Such idea does not necessarily fix the volume of the fine aggregate to be always Y:r the volume of gravel. How if problems arise during the actual concreting work when segregation of aggregate could not be avoided, specially on portions where steel bars are crowded and closed to each other?
In this connection, the following solutions are suggested: 1. Verify the diameter. Ascertain the thorough mixing of the concrete. Verify if the proportion you are adopting, say 1 :2 : 4 mixture has enough paste to cover the gravel and the reinforcing bars including the pipes and other materials. The paste of a concrete mixture should not only be enough to cover the gravel mixed but also the steel bars and other materials incorporated in the forms.
This simple neglect will invite a building of a honeycombed structure. The Code on water cement ratio so provides. It also provides higher immunity to surface scaling caused by chemicals. Concrete shall be of plastic and workab le form, hence, it should neither be too dry nor too wet. Too wet concrete results to the segregation of the ingredients. Water ratio is best determined by trial batch method to determine the kind of mixture in obtaining the required strength and consistency.
On fair or cloudy weather b. Sunny day c. If m ixing will continue until after sunset, adjustment by reducing the water content ratio is sometime necessary to maintain a uniform mixture of concrete. Under this situation, a reduction of water content per mixture batch is inevitable. All conveying devices in de livering concrete shall be free from rain water before use. The Building Officials has the right to order the testing of any materials used in concrete construction to determine if the concrete con-forms wit.
The degree of consistency of concrete could be ascertained on the following table:. The load that makes the specimen fail is recorded. It is an excellent partner of concrete in resisting both tension and compression stresses. Comparativeiy, steel is ten times stronger than concrete in resisting compression load and times stronger in tensile stress.
Type's of deformed bars The combtnation of concrete and steel shows the following satisfactory joint performance: 86 1. There is a negligible difference in thermal expansion coefficient that makes it safe from undue effects of differential thermal deformation.
The concrete that surrounds the steel reinforcement is considered an excellent protective covering that retards corrosion in steel. Steel bar manufacturers in the guise of conforming with the international movement as emphasized through a presidential decree produced steel bars that slightly differ by millimeter.
Manufacturers produced steel bars with their own standard under the millimeter diameter and was allegedly referreq to as "standard" that which refer to the English measure ; below standard; oversize; undersize; mm; etc. As a result. As an outcome, there is a total sacrifice in the strength of the structure. How could one distinguish the difference between 10 mm from 11 mm steel bars through the naked eye without the aid o; a caliper?
Even with the aid of' a caliper, one could not effectively measure a steel bar with perforations and elliptical cross-sectional diameter. Order of steel bars shall be specific according to the millime.
Do not insist on bigger discount in buying steel bars, because you will most likely get steel bars a millimeter or more smaller than what you actually need which in turn might be more costly and damaging to your construction.
The knowledge and training of the recent crop of Engineersare centered on the English measure particularly on the structural design as the textbooks and references in circulation are all based from the English system of measure.
The shifting from English to Metric System needs time for adjustments and revision of most if not all of the technical books and manuals of instructions. The different steel bar manufacturers must be compelledto strictly follow a standard of measurement of steel bars through a more specific order. Guideline must be provided in the manufac 6 ture of standard steel bars for protection of the public from unscrupulous manufacturers and suppliers.
The diameter of the strand ranges from 1! Note: Hooks are not effective in adding compression resistance of reinforcement. Compression bars may be spliced by:a. Where beam reinforcement are placed in two or more layers, the clear distances between layers must be. In walls and slabs other than concrete joist construction, the p rincipal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness nor-more than 18 inches or 45cm.
The clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 3 inches 7. Spiral splices shall be48 b4ar diameter minimum but not less than 12 inches 30 em. Lateral ties shalf be at least no. For bar bundles the minimum cover shall equal the equivalent of the bundle but should not be more than 2 inches 5 em. The Code specifies that: 1. Not more than two bars shall be bundled in one plane 2.
Typical bundle shape are triangular, square or L-shaped pattern. Bars larger than No. Cracks are minimized through the use of deformed steel bars.
A larger number of small bars is more effective in minimizing crack width than a smaller number of large bars having the same total cross-sectional area. If No. Bar and rod mats for concrete re inforcement shall be the dipped type conforming with the Specifications for ASTM A Welded deformed wire fabric for concrete reinforcement shall conform to the specification for of ASTM A Welded intersection shall be spaced not farther apart than 40 em in the direction of the principal reinforcement.
And the rain descend, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon the house: and It fell not: for it was founded upon the rcx:k. The Greeks t:tas extensively used marble blocks as foundation oftenly tied together with metal band.
Marble being abundant in Greece becomes the chief construction materials extensively used in their articulate temples, carvings and statues. Wood piles were used. The introduction of the Griltage Wooden Model Ship Building Tools 201 Footing resolves the problem of foundation weight in the year when it was first introduced. The advent of Reinforced Concrete in the early part of superceded all these kind of footings due to the advantages it offers in al. Foundation is further defined as the substructure wh1ch is usually placed below the surface of the ground that transmits the load of the building to the under-lying soil or rock.
FootingFooting is that portion of the foundation of. In short, footing is the lower portion of the foundation structure. Fomdation Bed -refers to the soil or rock directly beneath the footing. Footings are classified into two types, the wall and column footings. Walt footings is a strip of reinforced concrete wider than the wall which distributes the load to the soil. Column footing on the otherhand, is also classified into the following types: 1.
A steel percentage equals to 0. SUe No. Sise The reinforcement for square footing is usually placed in the direction parallel to both sides spaced uniformly and perpendicular with each other. To use the above table consider the following example:Problem: A square column with a general dimension of 12" x 12" is to support an axial load of , lb. Referring to the Table 6 -1; under soil pressure fs. Since the reinforcement is two-way, another 14 pes.
The footing will then be as follows;It Pt5. To determine the dimension of the concrete footing and the size of the reinforcement Including its spacing. To determine the load that could be carried by a footing of a given dimension and reinforcement. Consequently, footing reinforcementS are spaced closely to the center of the column than the outer portion. Rectangular b. This type of footing occupies the entire area beneath the structure and carry the wall and the column loads. When a building is too heavy that individual or combined footing would cover about 'h of the building area, the Raft' footing is likely to be economical.
The Raft footing is either made of an inverted slab provided with a. Piles were Jikewise found near the lake of Lucerne and New Guinea, construction which where built about A. The Campanile of Venice after its destruction have been found oUt to be resting on wood pHes which according to history has been driven os. Pier-refers to a large cross-sectional dimension, each capable of transmitting the entire load from a single column down to a stable stratum. Type and size 2. As friction pile utilizing its full length.
As soil compactor. As end-bearing columns 5. As stabiHzers of banks 6. As better piles 7. As a dolphin 8. As sheeting Unless batter piles are intended to be effective in serving any one of these functions, they should not be used, otherwise driving piles without any purpose will be an exercise in futi. To resist crushing under vertical load 2. To resist crushing during the process of driving.
Timber piles are not susceptible to withstand high stresses due to hard driving that requires a desirable penetration on a highly resistant layer.
In driving piles, it is very important to select the right type of hammer and the number of blows to prevent breakage and create damage on the pile head, piles driven by steam hammer at 15, ft. To resist handling stresses. To resist horizontal and eccentric forces that will cause bending when applied on it. To resist curvature bending and column action for the portions not receiving lateral support from the ground when freely standing in air, water or a very liquid mud.
Vitruvius in his writing described the Roman builders to have been using timber piles in their foundation work as early as 58 A. It shows that even the early builders during the Roman Empire dispensation have recognized the importance of providing a structure with a strong foundation. The discovery of cement by the Romans associated by the demand for a massive structures have prompted the early builders to study the nature and behavior of soil in carrying a massive load.
It is during this stage that timber piles were introduced in making foundation. With the advent of power equipment used in building construction, pile driving would not be difficult as that of the Romans way of driving piles crudely through manpower.
The diameter of the piles shall be measured in their peeled condition. When the piles is not exactly round, the average measurement may be used. The butt diameters for the same length of pile shall be uniform as possible. No strip of inner bark remaining on pile shall be over 2 em. Timber piles are said to be durable when driven below the normal water level, on the otherhand, the life span of timber pile above water!
J level even if treated with creosote under pressure will only last for a duration of about 40 years. Tirriber piles penetrated by salt water are subject to deterioration caused by marine organism called Teredo and limnoria.
Wood piles under attack by marine borer maybe terminated within a few years under extreme favorable condition of which no amount of chemical treatment could cure in any manner.
The two methods applied in eliminating or reducing wood attack are Poiso ning the wood by creosote through pressure treatment. Mechanical protection. Untreated wood piles is capable of resisting decay indefinitely if d riven below the normal water table.
CreosOte treatment protects the outer surface of wood through penetration of the chemical that ranges from 20 to 25 mm.
Piles shall retain preservative in at least the amount given in the following table. Driving of pi les involves some considerations which some of them are enumerated as follows See to it that the taper of the pile shou ld be uniform from the butt to the tip.
The butt of the pile should be square or chamfered to fit in the pile cap. The t ip of the pile is either pointed or squared. Pointed t ips sometimes cause the pile to drive out of vertical position that in most cases square tip is preferred. Timber pile shall be driven by the right type of hammer because it cannot resist high stresses due to hard driving lthat is required to penetrate highly resistant layer of soil.
Timber piles could not be driven against a very h igh soil resistance without damage and are rarely specified to receive driving load in excess of 30 tons kilonewton but usually restricted to 25 tons KN or less. The tip of the timber pile which could be easily damaged is protected by t he use of steel shoes, on the otherhand the butt is also provided with an ample protection by the use of cushion block.
Pile cushion should be attached at the hammer base in order to reduce the impact stresses and at the same instance prolong the life span of the hammer. The hammer is rat ed based upon the energy per blow where the rated energy is the product of the weight of the ram and the height of the fall less the friction energy loss on the ram guide.
The hamer cushion are of two different types, the soft and the hard type. The soft type is sometimes made of wood and asbestos which are very common although there are other types being developed. The hard type cushion contains alternating disks of aluminum and micarta which is considered to be efficient in its performance after l15 several use while others which are of low quality such as wood chips or coiled steer cable are rarely specif ied.
T he pile cushion elements does not only protect t he top of the pile as well as the hammer from t he high stresses but also deliver significant influence on the wave stresses that is being developed in the process of pile driving such as: a. It affects the driving characteristics of the pile b.
The depth to which it can be driven c. The load carrying capacityThe selection of the type and dimension of cushion block that. To assure a maximum driving force in the pile equal to the maximum capacity of the pile without overstressing the pile. As much as possible to transmit the maximum energy of the hammer to the pile. The lack of contro l an d selection.
Driving sequence of pile shall be given attention for it might affect the penetration of the pile into the ground. The central piles in a group shall not be left until the last has been driyen to a definite depth, o therwise, this might be dangerous to cause damages to th.
Over driving indicates bending of piles, hammer bouncing, cutting of driving plate into the pile and separation of wood along the annual growth rings which causes head brooming. Careless driving procedure such as unusually hard compaction of the cushion, block tilting of the head cap, non axial blows and uneven pile head causes damage to the pile.
The head failure due to impact of driving could be prevented by banding before drivi. Uncased pileseliminate the metal casing or shell which invariably reduces the cost. An open end pipe is driven into t he ground, clean it out then f ill the hole with concrete and finally, the pipe is withdrawn.
Heavy drive is dragged into the ground by dropping a hammer directly on plug of fresh concrete. The pipe is removed progressively as additional concrete mixture is rammed inside the pipe. Pumping concrete under continous pressure through a hollow shaft of an auger, the hole is drilled by an auger which is then pulled out f rom the ground. Consequently concrete is then pumped into the shaft.
Pipe piles usua lly has a diameter of 25 t o 75 em. Precast pile reduces tension cracking caused by handling and driving. Covering will spall-off as rust continues to develop. Underground deterioration is not common unless water contains destructive alkali, acid or salt.
Deterioration in sea water is caused by mechanical and chemical action 4. Damage due to handling and driving of the concrete pile. Defects in the manufacture of concrete pile. The: different metal piles used in building constructions are:. The first modern steam pile driving machine was invented and introduced by Nasmyth in designed as a drop I hammer for wood piles which was then modified into a handle I single acting hammer. At present, piles are driven into the ground I by means of a hammer or a vibratory generator.
The hammer I t operates between a pair of parallel guide suspended from a standard i lifting crane. The bottom of the guides connected at the base of 1 the crane boom by means of a horizontal member called spotter. Air or su-n Hammeroperates by litting. If the fall is due to gravity alone the hammer is classified as Single Acting. If air or steam pressure supports the downward fall, the hammer is said to be DoW,Ie Acting or differential depending upon t he detail of the construction.
The weight of the ram including its height of' fall plus other informations regarding the different types of drivng equipment are shown on Table The effect of too close pile spacing are Creation of large horizontal pressures in driving particularly on a relatively uncompressible underground layer which sometimes cause damage to t he piles being.
The carrying capacity of the soil where the group of piles acts may be less than the whole sum of the fractional capacities of the soil that encloses the individual piles if too closely spaced to each other. The effect of wider spacing of piles:.
Wider spacing has the tendency of readily perm itting the latter piles in group to penetrate the same depth of the first pile which in effect gives uniform bearing and settlement. Wider spacing of piles reduce heaving and tension damage including the possibility of crushing the outer surface of the piles.
The value of the group may be increased and the piles serves efficiently if spacing is increased. Piles intended to serve a marine structure which are exposed to receive wave action should be spaced at a min imum of 5 times its diameter apart to 'reduce countercurrent, whirlpool and abrasion. Pilot pile is also used before driving timber or concrete pile, an beam, H pile or mandrell is used for this purpose.
Spudding is also applied by raising and lowering the piles with heavy precast piles every after little driving progress. Deflection of piles during the process of driving maybe brought about by the following: ' L Piles may glance-off to an obstruction or hit a scoping bed rocks.
In soft clay, piles tend to bend toward previously installed close-by piles due to the soil softening from remoulding during the driving.. Bowing of the jet pipe caused by the weight of the hose that causes piles in jetting group to penetrate out of plumb.
The lower portion of a batter piles sometimes tend to sag and cau. Early repair such as encasement or replacement 2. Removal of partial load 3. With the advent of reinforced concrete at the early part of , grillage footing became obsolete. Almost all constructions are now dominated by the use of the new materials.
The Engineer who has to make the design must have a reasonably accurate conception of the physical pro-perties and arrangement of the underlaying soil. The most suitable method under a wide variety of soil conditions is by drilling a hole into the ground and extracting samples for identification or testing.
The investigation of the underlaying materials as to its consistency or relative density of the deposit could be made by penetration test or other methods which do not require sampling. The two varieties of hand auger commonly used for soil investigations are the helical auger and the I wan or post hole auger. A portable power driven helical augers are available from 8 to 30 em.
The methods applied in wash boring is to drive a piece of metal tube of 5 to 10 em. Water is forced down through the wash pipe by means of a high velocity pump to rinse the fragments of soil through the annular space between the tube and the wash pipe. This method is similar to the process of installing an underground water pump where the pipe is cleaned by wash pipe and water. Nina was one of Columbus ship s. Scale 1: 65 Length: mm, Height: mm Display scale kit difficulty: 2.
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