Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories speculate about possible visits to or interactions with the Americas , the indigenous peoples of the Americas , or both, by people from Africa , Asia , Europe , or Oceania at a time prior to Christopher Columbus ' first voyage to the Caribbean in i.
Only a few cases of pre-Columbian contact are widely accepted among the scientific and scholarly mainstream. Maritime explorations by Norse peoples from Scandinavia during the late 10th century led to the Norse colonization of Greenland and of L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland , [3] which preceded Columbus' arrival in the Americas by some years.
There is also significant evidence of material exchange between the peoples of Siberia and Alaska dating at least five centuries before Columbus' travels to the New World. Genetic evidence presented in found that some eastern Polynesian populations have admixture from coastal northern South American peoples, with an estimated contact around CE.
Scientific and scholarly responses to other claims of post-prehistory, pre-Columbian contact have varied. Some of these claims are examined in reputable peer-reviewed sources.
Many others�especially those based on circumstantial or ambiguous interpretations of archaeological evidence, alleged out-of-place artifacts , superficial cultural comparisons, comments in historical documents, or narrative accounts�have been dismissed as fringe science , pseudoarchaeology , or pseudohistory. Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada prior to Columbus' voyages are supported by historical and archaeological evidence.
Though L'Anse aux Meadows establishes that Norse colonists traveled to and built permanent structures in North America, few sources describing contact between indigenous peoples and Norse people exist. Contact between the Thule people ancestors of the modern Inuit and Norse in the 12th or 13th centuries is known.
Similar cultures of peoples across the Bering Strait in both Siberia and Alaska suggest human travel between the two places ever since the strait was formed. These " Na-Dene " peoples, who share many linguistic and genetic similarities not found in other parts of the Americas, populated the far north of the Americas and only made it as far south as Oasisamerica. It is suggested that by BCE " Eskimo " [ clarification needed ] peoples began coming to the Americas from Siberia.
Bronze artifacts discovered in a 1,year-old house in Alaska suggest pre-Columbian trade. Bronze working had not been developed in Alaska at the time and suggest the bronze came from nearby Asia�possibly China, Korea, or Russia. Also inside the house were found the remains of obsidian artifacts, which have a chemical signature that indicates the obsidian is from the Anadyr River valley in Russia. In June , Purdue University published the results of research on six Small Boats Vs Big Waves Questions metal and composite metal artifacts excavated from a late prehistoric archaeological context at Cape Espenberg on the northern coast of the Seward Peninsula in Alaska.
Also part of the team were researchers from the University of Georgia and the University of Pennsylvania. The report is the first evidence that metal from Asia reached prehistoric North America before the contact with Europeans, stating that X-ray fluorescence identified two of these artifacts as smelted industrial alloys with large proportions of tin and lead. The presence of smelted alloys in a prehistoric Inuit context in northwest Alaska was demonstrated for the first time and indicated the movement of Eurasian metal across the Bering Strait into North America before sustained contact with Europeans.
This is not a surprise based on oral history and other archaeological finds, and it was just a matter of time before we had a good example of Eurasian metal that had been traded [ Locally available metal in parts of the Arctic, such as native metal, copper and meteoritic and telluric iron were used by ancient Inuit people for tools and to sometimes indicate status.
Two of the Cape Espenberg items that were found � a bead and a buckle � are heavily leaded bronze artifacts. Both are from a house at the site dating to the Late Prehistoric Period, around AD, which is before sustained European contact in the late 18th century. It resembles a buckle used as part of a horse harness that would have been used in north-central China during the first six centuries before the Common Era.
Between and , geneticist Erik Thorsby and colleagues published two studies in Tissue Antigens that evidence an Amerindian genetic contribution to human populations on Easter Island , determining that it was probably introduced before European discovery of the island. Some members of the now-extinct Botocudo people , who lived in the interior of Brazil , were found in research published in to have been members of mtDNA haplogroup B4a1a1 , which is normally found only among Polynesians and other subgroups of Austronesians.
This was based on an analysis of fourteen skulls. The research team examined various scenarios, none of which they could say for certain were correct. They dismissed a scenario of direct contact in prehistory between Polynesia and Brazil as "too unlikely to be seriously entertained.
A genetic study published in Nature in July stated that "some Amazonian Native Americans descend partly from a The authors suggest that the genetic signatures were probably the result of a single ancient contact. They proposed that an initial admixture event between indigenous South Americans and Polynesians occurred in eastern Polynesia between and CE, with later admixture in Easter Island around CE, [4] but suggested other possible contact scenarios�for example, Polynesian voyages to South America followed by Polynesian people's returning to Polynesia with South American people, or carrying South American genetic heritage.
The sweet potato , a food crop native to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia by the time European explorers first reached the Pacific. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to CE, [ contradictory ] and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia c. Dutch linguists and specialists in Amerindian languages Willem Adelaar and Pieter Muysken have suggested that the word for sweet potato is shared by Polynesian languages and languages of South America.
Adelaar and Muysken assert that the similarity in the word for sweet potato "constitutes near proof of incidental contact between inhabitants of the Andean region and the South Pacific. The sewn-plank canoes crafted by the Chumash and neighboring Tongva are unique among the indigenous peoples of North America, but similar in design to larger canoes used by Polynesians for deep-sea voyages. If it occurred, this contact left no genetic legacy in California or Hawaii.
This theory has attracted limited media attention within California, but most archaeologists of the Tongva and Chumash cultures reject it on the grounds that the independent development of the sewn-plank canoe over several centuries is well-represented in the material record. In , evidence emerged which suggested the possibility of pre-Columbian contact between the Mapuche people Araucanians of south-central Chile and Polynesians. Bones of Araucana chickens found at El Arenal site in the Arauco Peninsula , an area inhabited by Mapuche, support a pre-Columbian introduction of landraces from the South Pacific islands to South America.
Chicken DNA sequences were matched to those of chickens in American Samoa and Tonga , and found to be dissimilar to those of European chickens. However, this finding was challenged by a study which questioned its methodology and concluded that its conclusion is flawed, although the theory it posits may still be possible. Ageratum conyzoides , also known as billygoat-weed, chick weed, goatweed, or whiteweed, is native to the tropical Americas, and was found in Hawaii by William Hillebrand in who considered it to have grown there before Captain Cook's arrival in A legitimate native name meie parari or mei rore and established native medicinal usage and use as a scent and in leis have been offered as support for the pre-Cookian age.
Turmeric Curcuma longa originated in Asia, and there is linguistic and circumstantial evidence of the spread and use of turmeric by the Austronesian peoples into Oceania and Madagascar. These skulls originated from Mocha Island , an island just off the coast of Chile in the Pacific Ocean, formerly inhabited by the Mapuche. A genetic study suggests the possibility of contact between Ecuador and East Asia.
The study suggests that the contact could have been trans-oceanic or a late-stage coastal migration that did not leave genetic imprints in North America. Other researchers have argued that the Olmec civilization came into existence with the help of Chinese refugees, particularly at the end of the Shang dynasty.
Other claims have been made for early Chinese contact with North America. In approximately 30 brass coins, perhaps strung together, were reportedly found in the area of the Cassiar Gold Rush , apparently near Dease Creek , an area which was dominated by Chinese gold miners. A contemporary account states: [55]. In the summer of a miner found on De Foe Deorse? Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand, twenty-five feet below the surface.
They appeared to have been strung, but on taking them up the miner let them drop apart. The earth above and around them was as compact Boats Called Canoes Examples as any in the neighborhood. One of these coins I examined at the store of Chu Chong in Victoria. Neither in metal nor markings did it resemble the modern coins, but in its figures looked more like an Aztec calendar. So far as I can make out the markings, this is a Chinese chronological cycle of sixty years, invented by Emperor Huungti , BCE, and circulated in this form to make his people remember it.
Museum identified these as good luck temple tokens minted in the 19th century. He believed that claims that these were very old made them notorious and that "The temple coins were shown to many people and different versions of stories pertaining to their discovery and age spread around the province to be put into print and changed frequently by many authors in the last years. Although Chinese mapmakers placed this territory on the Asian coast, others have suggested as early as the s [57] that Fusang might have been in North America, due to perceived similarities between portions of the California coast and Fusang as depicted by Asian sources.
In and , doughnut -shaped stones which resembled stone anchors which were used by Chinese fishermen were discovered off the coast of California. These stones sometimes called the Palos Verdes stones were initially thought to be up to 1, years old and therefore proof of pre-Columbian contact by Chinese sailors.
Later geological investigations showed them to be made of a local rock which is known as Monterey shale , and they are thought to have been used by Chinese settlers who fished off the coast during the 19th century.
Alaskan anthropologist Nancy Yaw Davis claims that the Zuni people of New Mexico exhibit linguistic and cultural similarities to the Japanese. Davis speculates that Buddhist priests or restless peasants from Japan may have crossed the Pacific in the 13th century, traveled to the American Southwest , and influenced Zuni society. In the s, lawyer and politician James Wickersham [70] argued that pre-Columbian contact between Japanese sailors and Native Americans was highly probable, given that from the early 17th century to the midth century several dozen Japanese ships are known to have been carried from Asia to North America along the powerful Kuroshio Currents.
Japanese ships landed at places between the Aleutian Islands in the north and Mexico in the south, carrying a total of people in the 23 cases where head-counts were given in historical records. In most cases, the Japanese sailors gradually made their way home on merchant vessels. In , a dismasted, rudderless Japanese ship was wrecked near Cape Flattery in the Pacific Northwest. Three survivors of the ship were enslaved by Makahs for a period before being rescued by members of the Hudson's Bay Company.
They were never able to return to their homeland due to Japan's isolationist policy at the time. While admitting there is no definitive proof of pre-Columbian contact between Japanese and North Americans, Wickersham thought it implausible that such contacts as outlined above would have started only after Europeans arrived in North America and began documenting them. In , Alexander Cunningham wrote a description of the carvings on the Stupa of Bharhut in central India, dating from c.
A study claimed to have found carbonized remains that date to BCE and appear to be those of custard-apple seeds. Contemporary archaeologists suggested that the depictions were almost certainly based on the indigenous tapir , with the result that Smith's suggestions have generally been dismissed by subsequent research. Some objects depicted in carvings from Karnataka , dating from the 12th century, that resemble ears of maize Zea mays �a crop native to the New World , were interpreted by Carl Johannessen in as evidence of pre-Columbian contact.
The object has been claimed by some to instead represent a "Muktaphala", an imaginary fruit bedecked with pearls. Proposed claims for an African presence in Mesoamerica stem from attributes of the Olmec culture, the claimed transfer of African plants to the Americas, [79] and interpretations of European and Arabic historical accounts.
His claims included the attribution of Mesoamerican pyramids, calendar technology, mummification, and mythology to the arrival of Africans by boat on currents running from Western Africa to the Americas.
His conclusions have been severely criticized by mainstream academics and considered pseudoarchaeology. Leo Wiener 's Africa and the Discovery of America suggests similarities between Mandinka and native Mesoamerican religious symbols such as the winged serpent and the sun disk, or Quetzalcoatl , and words that have Mande roots and share similar meanings across both cultures, such as "kore", "gadwal", and "qubila" in Arabic or "kofila" in Mandinka.
Brazilian researcher Niede Guidon , who led the Pedra Furada sites excavations " Michael R. Mulan Pi is normally identified as Spain and Morocco of the Almoravid dynasty Al-Murabitun , [89] though some fringe theories hold that it is instead some part of the Americas.
One supporter of the interpretation of Mulan Pi as part of the Americas was historian Hui-lin Li in , [90] [91] and while Joseph Needham was also open to the possibility, he doubted that Arab ships at the time would have been able to withstand a return journey over such a long distance across the Atlantic Ocean, pointing out that a return journey would have been impossible without knowledge of prevailing winds and currents.
However, American archaeologists Robert C. Mainfort Jr. Kwas argued in American Antiquity that the Bat Creek inscription was copied from an illustration in an Masonic reference book and introduced by the Smithsonian field assistant who found it during excavation activities. As for the Decalogue Stone, there are mistakes that suggest it was carved by one or more novices who overlooked or misunderstood some details on a source Decalogue from which they copied it.
Since there is no other evidence or archeological context in the vicinity, it is most likely that the legend at the nearby university is true�that the stone was carved by two anthropology students whose signatures can be seen inscribed in the rock below the Decalogue, "Eva and Hobe Scholar Cyrus H. Gordon believed that Phoenicians and other Semitic groups had crossed the Atlantic in antiquity, ultimately arriving in both North and South America.
This hypothesis proposes contact partly on the basis of perceived similarities between the flint tools of the Solutrean culture in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal which thrived circa 20, to 15, BCE , and the Clovis culture of North America, which developed circa BCE. Evidence of contacts with the civilizations of Classical Antiquity �primarily with the Roman Empire , but sometimes also with other cultures of the age�have been based on isolated archaeological finds in American sites that originated in the Old World.
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